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FUR-BEARING 
ANIMALS 

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The  Fur  Traders 

and 

Fur  Bearing  Animals 


BY 


MARCUS  PETERSEN 


AUTHOR  OF 


'THE  WEASEL  FAMILY  AND  ITS  ALLIES;"    "SEALS— THEIR  PRODUCTS, 
HABITAT  AND  HABITS:"   "SOME  FUR  BEARING  ANIMALS" 


FULLY  ILLUSTRATED 


I  •   >   • 


»  o       ->  *    * 


>  ««       /.  » 


BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 

THE  HAMMOND  PRESS 

1914 


Copyright  1914 
By  THE  HAMMOND  PRESS 

All  rights  reserved 


'4       <■      "^     ,    • 


INTRODUCTION 

How  little  we  know  and  how  much  there  is  to  learn. 
Research  and  investigation  along  any  given  line 
show  how  incomplete  is  our  knowledge  even  of  the 
things  with  which  we  are  most  familiar.  There  is 
nothing  new  under  the  sun,  but  there  is  always  some- 
thing we  do  not  understand  about  the  subjects  to 
which  we  have  given  the  most  thought  and  study. 
The  scientist  who  knows  all  about  the  origin  of  a 
species,  sometimes  has  the  least  knowledge  as  to  how 
it  can  best  be  conserved,  or  of  its  real  worth  to  the 
community,  while  the  breeder  who  thoroughly  under- 
stands propagation  problems,  and  the  dealer  who 
can  exactly  estimate  the  value  of  the  products  of  fur 
bearing  animals,  often  know  little  about  their  origin, 
nature,  habits  and  habitat. 

The  object  of  this  volume  is  to  bring  within  the 
reach  of  each  of  these  classes  the  information  pos- 
sessed by  the  others ;  and  to  give  to  students  of  na- 
tural history  and  the  general  public  a  synopsis  of 
everything  of  value  that  has  been  written  by  others 
upon  this  subject,  together  with  many  facts  that 
heretofore  have  not  been  matters  of  general  infor- 
mation. 

The  author  has  not  attempted  to  write  a  new  his- 
tory of  any  part  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  but  to 
present  in  condensed  form  and  simple  language 
authentic  information  regarding  the  structural 
formation,  external  appearance  and  distinguishing 
features  of  the  more  important  fur-bearing  animals ; 
and  to  show  by  comprehensive  charts  and  tables  the 
proper  grouping,  and  the  relations  and  affinities  each 
to  each,  of  the  different  species.  Attention  has  also 
been  given  to  Fur  Farming,  and  the  commercial 
value  of  the  different  skins;  the  quantities  of  each 
used  annually  by  furriers  in  pursuit  of  their  calling ; 


the  processes  and  methods  employed  in  dressing, 
dyeing  and  improving  the  skins;  and  the  rules  by 
which  the  experts  determine  their  values. 

Considerable  time  has  been  devoted  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  map  showing  where  the  finest  specimens  of 
the  North  American  mammals  are  obtained,  and  to 
the  compilation  of  a  Lexicon  giving  the  English, 
French,  German  and  Spanish  names  of  the  different 
animals,  and  the  trade  designations  applied  to  the 
furs  made  from  the  various  pelts. 

Fanciful  exaggerations  have  been  carefully  avoid- 
ed; but  the  facts  presented  regarding  the  intelli- 
gence and  sagacity  of  some  of  the  species  add  to 
the  interest  of  the  book. 

While  it  was  impossible  to  tell  the  whole  story  in 
the  first  paragraph,  it  has  been  told  in  as  few  words 
as  possible,  so  that  this  work  is  in  reality  a  text 
book,  where  the  important  facts  about  the  fur-bear- 
ing animals  and  their  products  are^  so  arranged 
that  the  reader  can  readily  find  the  data  that  could 
be  obtained  elsewhere  only  by  long  and  patient  re- 
search through  the  works  of  many  writers.  Those 
who  may  desire  more  detailed  information  are  re- 
ferred to  the  following  authorities  which  have  been 
consulted,  and  in  some  cases  freely  quoted,  by  the 
author  of  this  volume. 

Baron  Cuvier's  "Animal  Kingdom;"  Richard  Ly- 
decker's  ''Royal  Natural  History;"  John  Sterling  Kings- 
ley's  ''Riverside  Natural  History;"  Henry  Fairfield  Os- 
borne's "Age  of  Mammals;"  Henry  Poland's  "Fur  Bear- 
ing Animals;"  Captain  Hiram  Martin  Chittenden's  "Fur 
Traders  of  the  Far  West;"  Washington  Irving's  "As- 
toria;" Sir  Alexander  McKenzie's  "Voyages  From  Mon- 
treal;" George  Bryce's  "History  of  The  Hudson's  Bay 
Company;"  Alexander  Beggs'  "History  of  the  North 
West;"  P.  L.  Simmonds'  "Animal  Products;"  the  me- 
moirs of  Gabriel  Franchere,  Alexander  Ross  and  F.  A. 
Laroche;  the  reports  of  the  investigations  made  by  D.  G. 
Elliott,  Dr.  E.  Coues  and  Wilfred  H.  Osgood;  the 
writings  of  Linnaeus,  Buifron,  Lamarck,  Bell,  Darwin, 


Professor  Huxley,  Henri  LeCoiirt,  W.  T.  Hornaday,  Dr. 
Theodore  Gill,  R.  Ramsey  Wright,  W.  H.  Bhindell  and 
W.  N.  Lockington ;  and  the  Government  reports  issued  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
Bureau  of  Fisheries  of  the  Department  of  Commerce. 

The  helpful  co-operation  of  my  wife,  the  courtesies  ex- 
tended to  me  by  Dr.  Francis  A.  Crandall,  Jr.,  curator  of 
the  Buffalo  Park  Zoo,  and  many  others  whose  names  are 
not  mentioned,  and  the  assistance  given  by  my  pub- 
lisher, Mr.  H.  A.  Hammond  of  Buffalo,  are  gratefully 
acknowledged. 


KNOWLEDGE  IS  POWER 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I. 

The  Fur  Traders— Their  work  as  Empire  Builders. 
First  charter  granted  the  Skinners  Guild  of 
London  in  1327— History  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  and  the  Great  French  Fur  Merchants 
—The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany—The Struggle  for  the  Mastery— Lewis 
and  Clark  Expedition — John  Jacob  Astor's 
attempt  to  control  the  Fur  Trade  of  North 
America— The  Voyage  of  the  Tonquin— The 
Overland  Journey  to  the  Columbia — The  Sur- 
render of  Astoria — Lord  Strathcona — The 
Passing  of  the  Russian  Traders— Under  the 
American  Flag — The  Fur  Traders  of  Today. .       1-28 

Fur  Farming-— Its  Past,  Present  and  Future— Suc- 
cessful Experiments — General  Information — 
Fox  Raising  on  Prince  Edward  Island — What 
can  be  done  with  other  animals — Skunk  Breed- 
ing— The  Possibilities  of  the  Industry — Mink 
Raising — The  Obstacles  to  Success — Govern- 
ment Experiments  with  the  Persian  Lamb 29-40 

The  Furriers — Relations  to  other  Branches  of  the 
Fur  Trade— The  Old  New  York  Houses,  Where 
are  they? — Old  and  New  Methods  of  Merchan- 
dising— Increase  in  Number  of  Small  Factories 
— The  place  of  the  Specialty  Man — Fur  Dealers 
and  Fur  Fakirs 41-44 

Fur  Markets — Seal  Sales  at  St.  Louis — Leipzig  Fur 
Mart — The  Fairs  at  Irbit  and  Nijni  Novgorod 
in  Russia — New  York  as  a  Fur  Market — The 
London  Sales — The  Offerings — Moscow,  Tien- 
tsin and  other  Fur  Centers 45-46 

Dressing,  Dyeing,  Improving  and  Grading— The 
Dressers — The  Evolution  of  the  Dyer's  Art — 
Plucking,  Pulling  and  Machining — Imitations 
and  Substitutes — How  to  Remove  the  Skins 
from  the  Carcasses — Stuffed  Animals  versus 
Scientific  Taxidermy   47-56 

Size,  Color  and  Quality — Largest  Species  near  the 
Poles — Females  smaller  than  the  Males — In- 
breeding makes  the  stock  become  smaller — 
Larger  Animals  produced  by  Crossing — Most 
Powerful  Animals  on  the  Barren  Wastes — 
Predominating  Color — White  as  a  Mark  of  Dis- 
tinction— The  Influence  of  Cold  on  Color — Fur 
becomes  lighter  with  Age — When  Fur  has  its 
full  Growth — Best  at  from  One  to  Two  Years 
of  Age — Finest  Specimens  found  in  High  Lati- 
tudes—The Effect  of  Climate 57-58 


Quantities — Prices — Annual  Supply— Upward  of  a 
Million  Skins — Increasing  Quantities — Com- 
parative Tables — Fluctuations  in  Value — Ship- 
ments from  Alaska  in  1912 — Relative  Dur- 
ability of  Different  Furs  —  Influence  of 
Fashions  on  Quantities  and  Prices 59-68 

The  Tariff — Imports  and  Exports,  Restrictions — 
John  Jacob  Astor's  Objections  to  the  Tariff'  of 
1807— The  Act  of  October  3,  1913— Imports 
and  Exports  of  Furs  and  Skins  in  1912 — 
Restrictions — Closed  Seasons  . 69-73 

Fur  Traders  Lexicon — English,  French,  German 
and  Spanish  Names  of  the  Different  Animals 
and  Furs 74-84 

PART  II. 

Classification — The  Animal  Kingdom— The  Verte- 
brata — Orders  of  the  Class  Mammalia — 
Genera  and  Families  of  each  Order — Alpha- 
betical List  of  Species — Charts  and  Tables.  .  .   85-110 

The  Mammals — Their  Distinguishing  Characteris- 
tics— Dentition  and  Structural  Peculiarities — 
Nature,  Habits  and  Habitats — Points  of  Simi- 
larity of  Different  Orders — Lines  of  Demark- 
ation — Carnivores   111-116 

The  Bear  Family — Different  from  all  other  Car- 
nivorous Animals — Allied  to  the  Dog — Various 
Species 117-122 

The  Cat  Family— Most  Powerfully  Armed  of  all 
Mammals — Domestic  Cats — Various  Species 
of  Wild  Cats — Jaguarondi — Leopards  and 
Leopard  Cats^ — The  Lynx  Tribe — The  Lion — 
Jaguar — Puma  and  Tiger 123-145 

The  Civet  Family — Stand  Between  the  Hyaena  and 
Cat  Families — True  Civets — Their  Commercial 
Value — The  Genets  —  Fossa  —  Paradoxure  — 
Rasse — Ichneumon  and  Mungoose 146-150 

The  Dog  Family — Its  Origin — Domestic  Species — 
Wild  Dogs— Types— Plates— The  Foxes— Dif- 
ferent Species  and  Varieties — Range  of  the 
Red  Fox  and  its  Color  Variations — Silver, 
Arctic  and  Polar  Foxes — Other  Species — The 
Jackal — The  Wolves,  and  their  Distribution.  .151-170 

The  Hyaenas — Separate  Family  —  Distinguished 
from  the  Dog  and  Wolf — Different  Species — 
The  Aard  Wolf 171-172 

The  Weasel  Family — Composed  of  Six  Groups — 
Widely  Differing  Genera  and  Species — Color- 
ation— The  Martens.  Minks  and  Sables — The 
Polecats— The  Weasels— The  Otter— The  Bad- 
ger—The  Wolverine 173-202 


The  Raccoon  Family — The  Bassarisk-^JTlie  Cioati^  ;  ;  '.'\\  \ 
—The  Panda— The   Kinkajou   or  '  Potto— The  '  ^ 
Eaccoon  or  Raton 203-206 

Aquatic  Mammals^ — The  Pinnipeds — Seal  and  Wal- 
rus— Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Dogs — Fur  Seals  or  Sea 
Bears — Sea  Lions  or  Eared  Hair  Seals — Dif- 
ferent Species  of  True  and  Eared  Seals — Hair 
Seal  Fisheries — Alaska  Seal  Rookeries — The 
Hauling  Grounds — The  Breeding  Season — Gov- 
ernment Restrictions — Driving  and  Killing — 
Different  Varieties  of  Fur  Seal — Selection  of 
Skins — Distinguishing  Characteristics  of  Vari- 
ous Species 207-244 

Insectivora — Peculiarities     and     Dentition  —  The 

Mole— The  Desman    244-249 

The  Marsupials  or  Pouched  Mammals — A  Distinct 
Class  —  Opossums  —  Australian  Marsupials — 
Bandicoot  —  Dasyure  —  Koala — The  Common 
Phalanger  (Australian  Opossum) — The  Kan- 
garoos— The  Wallabies — Kangaroo  Rats  and 
Hares 250-265 

The  Monotremata — ^Egg'-laying  Mammals — Struc- 
tural Peculiarities— The  Platybus— Echidna .  .266-267 

The  Primates — Bimana  and  Quadrumana — Blustra- 
tions — Different  Families — Apes — Baboons — 
Monkeys  —  Marmosets  —  Lemurs  —  Common 
Monkeys— The  Aye-Aye  and  Tarsier 268-276 

The  Beaver — Largest  and  Most  Interesting  Rodent 
— No  Generic  connection  with  other  Mammals 
— Ingenuity  and  Intelligence — Beaver  Dams 
and  Their  Construction — Beaver  Lands — Com- 
mercial Uses 277-283 

The  Chinchilla  Family — Limitation  of  Range — 
Qualities — Real  Chinchillas — Bastards — Chin- 
chillones — Viscachas   284-285 

The  Rodentia  or  Gnawers — Largest  Order  of  the 
Mammalia — Ilovr  They  are  Characterized^ — 
Habits  and  Coloration — The  Hare  Family 
and  the  Rabbits^The  Rat  and  Mouse  Tribe — 
Dormouse — Hamster — Lemming — Muskrat  and 
Nutria — The  Squirrel  Family;  Tree  Squirrels, 
Flying  Squirrels,  Ground  Squirrels,  Chipmunk, 
Spermophile,  Marmot  and  Gopher 286-308 

The  Ungulata  or  Hoofed  Mammals — True  Rumin- 
ants— The  Buffallo — American  Bison — Yak — 
Musk  Ox — Domestic  Oxen — Rocky  Mountain 
Goat — Camels — Antelopes — The  Deer  Family 
—The  Goat  Family— The  Horse,  Its  Ancestors 
and  Kin — The  Sheep  Family  and  its  Value 
to  Mankind 309-364 


THE  FUR  TRADERS. 

The  use  of  skins  for  winter  garments  dates  back  to  the 
period  when  the  groves  were  God's  first  temples,  and  a 
man's  wants  were  limited  to  his  necessities.  It  is  a  long 
call  back  to  the  time  when  the  Patriarchs  clothed  them- 
selves in  the  skins  of  the  animals  they  had  slain  in  the  prim- 
eval forests  from  the  present  day  when  furs  are  often 
worn,  like  pearls  and  diamonds,  for  ornament  rather  than 
the  protection  they  afford  the  wearer,  and  in  some  cases 
are  so  valuable  that  a  fashionable  woman's  collection  of 
furs  is  often  worth  more  than  a  king's  ransom.  All 
through  the  intervening  centuries  peltries  have  formed  an 
important  article  of  traffic,  even  though  the  ingenuity  of 
man,  in  inventing  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  other 
materials  from  which  to  fashion  his  garments,  has  in  many 
cases  caused  the  furs  to  become  a  subsidiary  luxury  in- 
stead of  a  primary  necessity. 

One  of  the  oldest  guilds  in  the  city  of  London  is  the 
Skinners'  Company  which  was  originally  a  combination  of 
fur  traders,  but  at  a  later  period  the  "Upholders"  and 
''Tawas,"  as  the  furriers  and  skin  dealers  were  then 
respectively  called  were  admitted  to  membership.  There 
are  no  documents  from  which  the  particulars  of  its  origin, 
or  the  date  of  its  founding,  can  be  traced;  but  it  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  a  charter  granted  the  company  on 
March  1st,  1327,  by  King  Edward  III  of  England,  contains 
a  provision  that  the  members  must  not  sell  old  fur  for 
new.  A  second  charter  granted  by  Henry  VI,  on  February 
24,  1437,  gave  the  company  authority  to  regulate  the 
exposure  of  furs  for  sale  and  the  mixing  of  old  and  new 
furs ;  as  well  as  the  right  to  scrutinize  the  work,  places  of 
business,  and  the  wares  offered  for  sale  by  the  furriers 
in  London  and  other  parts  of  the  Kingdom.  Evidently 
even  at  that  early  day  there  were  those  who  were  bring- 
ing reproach  upon  an  honorable  calling  by  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  opportunities  for  deception  offered  by  the 
fur  trade. 

Charles  I,  seized  and  confiscated  the  lands  of  the 
Skinners'  Company,  but  they  were  returned  to  them  later. 


(*■ 


' '  *>  r  2' :  >:  ^  .'*::.. :  /.\  .The  Fur  Traders. 

On  June  28,  1667,  Charles  II  granted  a  new  charter,  which 
again  gave  the  company  jurisdiction  over  the  manufacture 
of  furs,  muffs,  and  linings  for  fur  garments;  and  the  cut- 
ting, clipping  and  dividing  of  the  wool  from  the  pelts.  By 
this  charter  they  were  also  given  authority  to  sue  and 
seize  wares,  and  the  power  to  search  out  offenders  against 
the  law  of  the  guild  and  to  present  them  before  the  proper 
authorities  for  punishment.  Another  provision  of  this 
charter  limited  the  time  of  service  of  apprentices  to  seven 
years. 

The  Skinners'  Company  has. long  since  ceased  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  over  the  fur  trade  in  England,  but  it  still 
has  a  corporate  existence  and  owns  property  in  London 
and  the  north  of  Ireland. 

The  ancient  name  of  this  company  was  the  ''Guild  or 
Fraternity  of  the  Body  of  Christ,  of  the  Skinners  of 
London." 

The  first  fur  traders  on  the  North  American  continent 
were  the  French  and  Russian  companies;  the  former  tak- 
ing possession  in  Canada  in  1535,  and  the  latter  establish- 
ing their  first  station  in  the  Northwest  in  1^53.  n 
/  The  West  Indian  Company,  a  Dutch  organization  which 
[established  headquarters  in  New  York  in  1621,  shared  for 
'a  time  with  the  Plymouth  Company  of  England  a  mon- 
opoly of  the  business  of  exporting  beaver  skins  from  the 
New  World.  The  real  history,  however,  of  the  development 
of  the  fur  trade  on  the  North  American  continent  is  found 
in  the  records  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  established 
under  the  patronage  of  Prince  Rupert,  on  May  2,  1670,  and 
those  of  the  great  French  Merchants  and  the  English  and 
Scotch  Traders,  who  for  more  than  a  century  refused  to 
recognize  the  rights  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  to 
exclusive  trading  privileges  on  the  shores  of  the  bay  and 
the  rivers  tributary  to  it,  and  who  often  contested  their 
claims  by  force  of  arms. 

The  original  title  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was, 
' '  The  Governor  and  Company  of  Adventurers,  Trading  into 
Hudson's  Bay."  Its  origin  was  as  follows:  In  1659,  two 
^  French  traders,  Groeilliers  and  Radisson,  made  their  way 
"*•  into  the  wilderness  beyond  Lake  Superior,  and  having  sat- 
isfied themselves  of  the  practicability  of  reaching  Hudson 
Bay  by  continuing  overland  to  the  north,    returned    to 


The  Fur  Traders.  3 

Montreal  with  a  load  of  furs.  While  they  were  making 
other  journeys  to  the  Northwest  for  exploration  and  profit, 
the  French  Government  gave  to  other  parties  a  patent 
conveying  to  them  the  exclusive  right  to  trade  in  those 
regions.  Groeilliers  returned  to  France  to  protest  against 
this  action,  and  failing  to  obtain  redress  from  his  own 
government  he  went  to  England  and  succeeded  in  inter- 
esting Prince  Rupert,  under  whose  patronage  he  sailed  for 
Hudson  Bay  in  1668.  The  success  of  this  trip  resulted 
in  the  granting  of  the  charter  which  gave  to  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  privileges  such  as  no  other  company  ever 
enjoyed  before  or  since. 

The  trade  of  the  company  at  first  was  small.  The  rec- 
ords show  that  in  1672  it  only  purchased  200  fowling 
pieces,  200  brass  kettles,  12  gross  of  knives,  and  900  hat- 
chets; but  the  quantities  of  merchandise  needed  to 
carry  on  the  trade  with  the  Indians  increased  every  year 
and  other  articles  were  steadily  added.  Fifteen  years  after 
the  founding  of  the  company  they  had  fifteen  forts;  one 
at  Albany  River,  two  at  Hayes  River,  three  at  Ruperts- 
land,  four  at  Port  Nelson,  and  five  at  New  Severn.  In 
1856,  the  company  had  forts  in  thirty-four  districts,  with 
about  ten  thousand  whites  and  half-breeds  and  about  forty- 
nine  thousand  Indians  under  their  rule.  The  stock  of  the 
company  in  1890,  was  divided  into  one  hundred  thousand 
shares,  of  a  par  value  of  fifteen  pounds  sterling  each. 

To  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the  variety  of  articles  in  a 
trading  equipment  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, as  well  as  the  prices  they  were  rated  at  west  of 
the  Rockies  in  1826,  we  publish  an  extract  from  a  bill  of 
sale  by  which  on  July  18,  1826,  an  outfit  was  transferred 
in  Utah. 

' '  Gun  powder  of  the  first  and  second  quality  at  one  dollar 
fifty  per  pound,  lead  at  one  dollar  per  pound,  shot  one  dollar 
twenty-five  cents  per  pound,  three  point  blankets  at  nine 
dollars  each,  green  ditto  at  eleven  dollars  each,  scarlet  cloth 
at  six  dollars  per  yard,  blue  ditto  common  quality  from 
four  to  five  dollars  per  yard,  butcher  knives  at  seventy-five 
cents  each,  two  and  a  half  point  blankets  at  seven  dollars 
each,  North  West  fuzils  at 'twenty-four  dollars  each,  tin 
kettles  different  sizes  at  two  dollars  per  pound,  sheet  iron 
kettles  at  two  dollars  twenty-five  cents  per  pound,  square 


4  The  Fur  Traders. 

axes  at  two  dollars  fifty  cents  each,  beaver  traps  at  nine 
dollars  each,  sugar  at  one  dollar  per  pound,  coffee  at  one 
dollar  twenty-five  cents  a  pound,  raisins  at  one  dollar 
fifty  cents  per  pound,  grey  cloth  of  common  quality  at  five 
dollars  per  yard,  flannel  common  quality  at  one  dollar  fifty 
cents  per  yard,  calicoes  assorted  at  one  dollar  per  yard,  dom- 
estic cotton  at  one  dollar  twenty-five  cents  per  yard,  thread 
assorted  at  three  dollars  per  pound,  worsted  binding  at  fif- 
teen dollars  per  gross,  finger  rings  at  five  dollars  per  gross, 
beads  assorted  at  two  dollars  fifty  cents  per  pound,  Vermil- 
lion at  three  dollars  per  pound,  files  assorted. at  two  dollars 
fifty  cents  per  pound,  fourth  proof  rum  reduced  at  thirteen 
dollars  fifty  cents  per  gallon,  bridles  assorted  at  seven  dol- 
lars each,  spurs  at  two  dollars  per  pair,  horse  shoes  and 
nails  at  two  dollars  per  pound,  tin  pans  assorted  at  two 
dollars  per  pound,  handkerchiefs  assorted  at  one  dollar 
fifty  cents  each,  ribbons  assorted  at  three  dollars  per  bolt, 
buttons  at  five  dollars  per  gross,  looking  glasses  at  fifty 
cents  each,  flints  at  fifty  cents  per  dozen,  moccasin  awls  at 
twenty-five  cents  per  dozen,  tobacco  at  one  dollar  twenty- 
five  cents  per  pound,  copper  kettles  at  three  dollars  per 
pound,  iron  buckles  assorted  at  two  dollars  fifty  cents  per 
pound,  fire  steels  at  two  dollars  per  pound,  dried  fruit  at 
one  dollar  fifty  cents  -per  pound,  shaving  soap  at  two 
dollars  per  pound,  first  quality  James  River  tobacco  at  one 
dollar  seventy-five  cents  per  pound,  steel  bracelets  at  one 
dollar  fifty  cents  per  pair,  large  brass  wire  at  two  dollars 
per  pound.*' 

At  that  time  the  wages  of  a  hunter  were  four  hundred 
dollars  per  year,  and  the  common  laborers  about  the 
y*  camp  received  tw^o  hundred  per  year,    Buffalo  skins  were 

\  '^  worth  three  dollars  each,  beavers  four  dollars  each,  otters 
three  dollars  each,  raccoons  twenty-five  cents  each,  musk- 
rats  twenty  cents  each,  and  deer  skins  thirty-three  cents 
per  pound. 

In  estimating  the  profits  of  the  traders  we  cannot  fig- 
ure the  difference  between  the  value  of  skins  received 
and  the  factory  cost  of  the  merchandise  exchanged  for  them ; 
but  must  allow  for  an  expense  account,  amounting  to  sev- 
eral hundred  per  cent,  on  the  goods.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  net  profit  remaining  was  heavy  for  money  seldom 
changed  hands  in  these  transactions,  and  whether  buying 
from  the  Indians  direct,  or  paying  the  trappers  employed 
by  them  on  a  salary,  or  dealing  with  the  free  white  hunters 
and  trappers,  the  company  settled  nearly  all  its  accounts 
in  merchandise. 


The  Fur  Traders.  .  5 

Washington  Irving  said  that  two  great  commercial  pur- 
suits were  the  ''pioneer  precursors  of  civilization  on  the 
Western  Hemisphere — the  search  for  gold  and  the  traffic 
in  peltries.  The  one  led  the  Spaniards  to  explore  the  lands 
scorched  by  the  tropic  sun,  and  the  other  caused  by  buoy- 
ant Frenchman  and  the  calculating  Briton  to  penetrate  the 
trackless  forests  of  the  north. ' ' 

Every  careful  student  of  American  history  knows  that 
the  call  of  the  wild  alone  without  any  prospect  of  gain, 
while  it  might  have  attracted  men  to  the  luxuriant  tropics, 
would  hardly  have  induced  them  to  push  on  into  the  frozen 
northland  until  the  way  to  the  Arctic  Circle  was  opened 
up  by  their  daring  enterprise. 

''It  was  because  the  early  French  adventurers  who  set- 
tled on  the  banks  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  found  that  in 
the  rich  peltries  of  that  territory  they  had  sources  of 
wealth  that  would  rival  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru," 
that  they  pressed  ever  further  into  the  unexplored  regions 
of  the  interior,  establishing  along  the  line  of  their  progress 
the  trading  posts  and  supply  stations  which  gradually 
evolved  into  the  great  commercial  centers  of  Canada.  When 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  settlement  at  Montreal  compelled 
the  Indians  to  extend  the  circle  of  their  hunting  operations, 
many  of  the  fur  traders  accompanied  them  in  their  expe- 
ditions to  more  distant  regions,  and  in  that  way  became 
acquainted  with  the  best  hunting  grounds  and  the  more 
remote  tribes,  and  by  trading  direct  with  the  Indians  in 
their  own  country  diverted  much  business  from  Montreal 
and  the  other  places  where  the  large  organized  companies 
had  their  stores. 

As  the  Indians  at  that  time  had  no  real  knowledge  of 
values,  and  bartered  the  most  precious  furs  for  worthless 
trinkets  and  cheap  commodities,  the  profits  of  these  wan- 
dering traders  were  enormous;  and  on  the  rare  occasions 
when  they  returned  to  Montreal  to  dispose  of  their  collec- 
tions and  purchase  new  supplies  they  startled  the  settlers 
with  their  display  of  reckless  prodigality. 

It  is  not  within  the  province  of  this  work  to  follow  the 
fortunes  of  these  Couriers-des-bois  or  rangers  of  the 
woods,  or  to  relate  how  their  example  corrupted  the  sim- 
ple   natives,    among    whom    they    spent    most  of  their 


6  The  Fur  Traders. 

lives  and  of  whom  they  took  every  unfair  advan- 
tage, until  the  French  Government  issued  an  order  pro- 
hibiting all  persons  from  trading  in  the  interior  without 
a  license  in  writing  from  the  Grovernor-G^neral  under 
penalty  of  death.  The  facts  stated  have  simpl}^  been  men- 
tioned to  show  how  large  and  important  a  part  the  fur 
traders  had  in  the  development  of  the  Northwest.  They 
were  for  many  years,  lawless  as  some  of  them  were,  the 
only  civilized  beings  in  the  country  in  which  they  operated ; 
and  but  for  the  French  voyageurs,  and  the  English  and 
Scotch  adventurers  and  explorers  working  under  the 
authority  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Northwest  Com- 
panies, New  Caledonia  or  British  Columbia  might  never 
have  been  discovered,  and  Canada  might  still  be  shut  out 
from  access  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  the  erection  of 
fur  trading  posts  by  the  French  that  aroused  the  jealousy 
of  England  and  was  the  primary  cause  of  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  which  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  French 
dominion  in  Canada.  The  Treaty  of  Paris,  signed  May  2, 
1762,  left  England  undisputed  sovereign  of  North  America, 
except  to  the  west  and  southwest  of  the  Mississippi  and  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  "marked  the  passing  of  the  great 
French  merphants  who  for  generations  had  lived  the  lives 
of  commercial  patriarchs  at  their  trading  posts,  in  easy  fa- 
miliarity with  their  retainers  and  the  train  of  Indians  and 
canoe  men  of  all  nations  always  hanging  about  their  estab- 
lishments and  eating  and  drinking  at  their  expense."  It 
also  put  a  stop  to  the  feuds  and  contests  arising  from  the 
infringements  of  territorial  limits,  and  the  acts  of  violence 
and  bloodshed  that  up  to  that  time  had  been  of  frequent 
occurrence  between  the  factors  of  the  Hudson 's  Bay  Com- 
pany and  the  agents  of  the  French  merchants  in  Canada. 
There  was  a  period  of  depression  after  the  Treaty  of 
Paris.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  when  it  found  itself  in 
control  of  the  situation  decided  to  trade  only  wtih  the 
Indians  direct  as  the  surest  way  to  prevent  the  extermina- 
tion of  the  fur-bearing  animals;  and  the  Scotch  merchants 
of  Montreal,  the  natural  successors  to  the  French  traders 
in  the  upper  lake  country,  being  uncertain  as  to  territorial 
rights  were  for  a  time  inactive.  When  they  did  begin 
operations  they  were  at  first  ignorant  of  the  country 
and  distrustful  of  the  natives ;  and  the  couriers-des-bois  and 


The  Fur  Traders.  7 

other  adventurers  whom  they  tried  to  enlist  in  their  serv- 
ice missed  the  indulgent  freedom  of  the  old  trading  houses, 
and  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  haughty  reserve  and  exacting 
methods  of  the  British  traders.  With  the  revival  of  trade 
in  1766,  came  new  rivalries  and  jealousies,  until  business 
was  again  injured  by  the  efforts  of  the  various  individuals 
engaged  in  the  traffic  to  outbid  and  undermine  one  another. 
The  Indians  were  debauched  by  the  sale  of  spirituous 
liquors  which  had  been  prohibited  under  the  French  rule, 
and  once  more  scenes  of  drunkenness  and  brawls  were  fre- 
quent in  the  Indian  villages  and  around  the  trading  posts ; 
while  bloody  conflicts  often  resulted  when  rival  trading 
parties  met  ^'in  the  lawless  depths  of  the  wilderness." 

It  was  to  put  an  end  to  these  conditions  that  the  famous  c^>- 
Northwest  Company  was  organized  in  1783  by  the  Montreal  y^ 
merchants  under  the  directorship  of  Sir  Alexander 
McKenzie ;  so  that,  instead  of  scattering  their  energies  along 
a  dozen  or  more  individual  lines  of  endeavor,  the  opposing 
forces  might  present  a  united  front  in  their  competition 
with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  only  organization 
whose  rivalry  the  new  company  had  cause  to  fear,  Pond,  . 
Pangman  &  Co.,  was  absorbed  in  1787 ;  and  from  that  time 
on  ''the  Northwest  Company  held  lordly  sway  over  the 
lakes  and  boundless  forests  of  the  Canadas"  until  it  in 
turn  was  absorbed  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  in  1821. 
For  nearly  tw^o  generations  the  McTavishes,  McGillivrays, 
McKenzies  and  Frobishers,  who  were  the  resident  agents 
of  the  Northwest  Company  at  Montreal  and  Quebec,  formed 
a  commercial  aristocracy  at  those  places,  while  the  part- 
ners in  charge  of  the  interior  stations,  each  with  his  score 
or  more  of  retainers  at  his  command,  lived  like  Highland 
chieftains  in  their  wilderness  fastnesses.  The  headquarters 
of  the  Northwest  Company  were  at  Montreal,  and  its  prin- 
cipal depot  was  at  Grand  Portage.  Its  operations  ex- 
tended into  the  Northwest  between  the  Hudson  Bay  terri- 
tory on  the  one  side  and  Louisiana  on  the  other.  When  a 
survey  showed  that  the  headquarters  were  on  United 
States  territory  a  new  post  was  built  further  north  and 
named  Fort  William.  It  was  here  that  the  annual  dinners 
of  the  company  were  held.  Irving  says  :  '' At  these  meetings 
the  house  swarmed  with  traders  and  voyageurs.    The  coun- 


1 


8  The  Fur  Traders. 

cils  were  held  in  great  state,  for  every  member  of  the  com- 
pany felt  as  if  he  were  sitting  in  Parliament,  and  every 
dependent  looked  up  to  the  assemblage  with  awe,  as  to  the 
House  of  Lords. 

* '  In  the  banquet  hall,  the  tables  groaned  under  the  weight 
of  delicacies  and  there  was  no  stint  of  wine  for  this  was 
a  hard  drinking  period.  While  the  chiefs  thus  reveled  in 
the  hall,  and  made  the  rafters  ring  with  bursts  of  elo- 
quence and  song,  their  merriment  was  echoed  and  prolong- 
ed by  the  legions  of  white  adventurers,  half-breeds,  Indian 
hunters,  and  vagabonds  of  every  class,  who  feasted  sump- 
tuously outside  on  the  crumbs  that  fell  from  the  great 
men 's  tables. ' ' 

The  glory  and  wonderful  success  of  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany stimulated  further  enterprise  in  this  ''open,  and  ap- 
parently boundless,  sea  of  profit ; ' '  and  in  1795,  a  combina- 
tion was  formed  by  several  partners  who  had  retired  from 
the  Northwest  Company  because  they  were  dissatisfied 
with  the  part  allotted  to  them  in  the  management  of  its  af- 
fairs, and  Forsyth,  Richardson  &  Company,  an  independ- 
ent Montreal  firm  that  for  a  number  of  years  had  main- 
tained a  trade  around  Lake  Superior,  which  resulted  in  the 
organization  of  a  New  Northwest  Company  or  as  it  was 
more  generally  known,  the  X.  Y.  Company.  This  organiza- 
tion continued  in  existence  until  1804.  Another  British 
company  which  was  founded  after  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany had  started  on  its  prosperous  career  was  the  Mack- 
inaw Company,  so  named  because  its  principal  station  was 
at  Machilimackinac.  It  operated  mainly  wdthin  the  terri- 
tories of  the  United  States  upon  the  shores  of  Lake  Michi- 
gan and  westward  to  the  Mississippi,  and  in  Canadian 
territory  east  of  Lake  Erie. 

Up  to  this  period  the  fur  trade  in  the  United  States  had 
not  been  organized  along  any  regular  line ;  for  while  skins 
were  casually  collected  by  traders  in  their  dealing  with 
the  Indians  and  white  hunters,  the  main  supply  of  furs 
used  in  the  United  States  came  from  the  Canadian  com- 
panies. 

''The  Government  of  the  United  States  had  for  some  time 
viewed  with  apprehension  the  growing  power  of  these  for- 
eign combinations  among  the  native  tribes  upon  its  bor 
ders;"  and  in  an  effort  to  counteract  their  influence  had 


The  Fur  Traders.  9 

as  early  as  1796,  established  rival  trading  posts  on  the 
American  side  of  the  frontier  to  secure  the  trade  of  the 
Indians  within  its  own  territory.  The  experiment  was  not 
successful.  Then,  as  has  proved  to  be  the  case  so  many  times 
since,  "the  keen  activity  of  private  enterprise  was  more 
than  a  match  for  lethargic  government  patronage."  The 
Government  could  not  resort  to  the  methods  pursued  by  its 
competitors.  Its  representatives  could  not  meet  misrepresen- 
tation with  misrepresentation,  or  secure  the  favor  of  the 
Indians  by  supplying  them  with  liquor;  the  importance 
of  this  last  fact  will  be  realized  by  those  who  know  how 
violent  is  the  attachment  of  the  Indian  for  liquor,  and  that 
he  who  gave  the  most  of  it  was  almost  sure  to  obtain  the 
furs.  The  Government  was  also  bound  to  patronize  only 
home  industries,  and  this  made  it  impossible  for  its  agents 
always  to  give  the  natives  the  best  article  of  its  kind  in 
exchange  for  their  peltries;  a  fact  upon  which  the  private 
trader  always  enlarged  to  his  advantage.  Then,  too,  the 
Government  was  not  permitted  to  extend  credit  to  the  In- 
dians, while  the  private  trader  advanced  the  incompetent 
natives  outfits  on  credit,  and  made  sure  of  his  payment  by 
accompanying  them  on  their  hunting  expeditions. 

The  ''factory  system"  of  1796,  was  right  in  theory;  but 
it  failed  in  practice,  because,  as  Captain  Hiram  Martin  Chit- 
tenden says,  in  The  American  Fur  Trade  of  the  Far 
West,  "the  Government  lacked  the  courage  of  its  con- 
victions. It  should  have  taken  the  field  to  itself,  just  as  it 
does  in  the  carrying  of  mails,  coining  of  money,  and  the 
making  of  war.  Instead  of  doing  this  it  granted  trading 
licenses  to  private  parties,  and  thus  degraded  itself  to  the 
level  of  a  competing  trader  among  a  herd  of  irresponsible 
and  frequently  lawless  rivals." 

We  may  rail  against  "monopoly,"  protest  against  the 
"centralization  of  power"  and  talk  wildly  of  the  "rights  of 
the  individual,"  but  the  exercise  of  judicious  authority  in 
restraint  of  trade  is  often  a  benefit  to  the  consumer  as 
well  as  the  producer — the  buyer  as  well  as  the  seller.  When 
liberty  degenerates  into  license  it  always  becomes  the  worst 
kind  of  slavery.  It  certainly  would  have  been  better 
for  the  Indian  to  have  taken  his  furs  to  the  "factories" 
where    he    could    get    his    goods    at    prices    that    would 


10  The  Fur  Traders. 

simply  make  the  system  self-sustaining,  instead  of  dealing 
with  traders  who,  in  spite  of  their  presents  and  plausible 
representations,  were  taking  every  advantage  of  his  ignor- 
ance, and  at  the  same  time  slandering  one  another  to  such 
a  degree  that  the  disgusted  Indian  finally  became  hostile 
to  all  Americans  and  traded  entirely  with  the  British 
agents  who  lived  near  the  boundary.  The  overthrow  of  the 
factory  system  in  March,  1822,  as  the  result  of  this  "open 
competition"  of  individual  traders  with  the  Government, 
robbed  responsible  American  merchants  of  their  main  out- 
let for  Indian  supplies,  and  demonstrated  that  in  a  field 
**free  for  all"  there  is  bound  to  be  a  commercial  rivalry,  in 
which  it  is  not  always  the  strongest  or  even  the  fittest,  but 
very  often  the  most  unscrupulous  who  survive.  Under 
such  conditions  even  a  monopoly  is  better  than  unrestrained 
competition. 

What  the  Government  failed  to  do  was  accomplished  later 
by  a  private  individual.  John  Jacob  Astor,  who  was  born 
at  Waldorf,  near  Heidelberg,  Germany,  on  July  17,  1763, 
had  settled  in  New  York  in  1783;  and  after  profitably 
disposing  of  the  stock  of  musical  merchandise  which  he  had 
brought  over  with  him  from  London,  had  followed  the  ad- 
vice given  him  by  a  traveling  companion  and  invested  his 
capital  in  peltries,  which  he  bought  at  Montreal  and  ship- 
ped to  London  and  China.  When  the  treaty  of  1795  ceded 
to  the  United  States,  the  military  posts  formerly  occupied 
by  the  British,  at  Oswego,  Niagara,  Detroit,  Machilimack- 
inac,  and  other  points  on  the  American  side  of  the  Great 
Lakes,"  Mr.  Astor,  who  had  been  very  successful  in  his 
trading  operations,  saw  an  opportunity  to  gratify  a  long- 
cherished  ambition  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade 
in  the  United  States.  He  began  establishing  trading  posts 
of  his  own  at  the  points  mentioned,  and  along  the  Missouri 
and  Nebraska  Rivers  into  the  country  where  the  Missouri 
Company  was  operating.  The  situation  then  confront- 
ing Mr.  Astor  was  this:  The  Hudson's  Baj^  and  North- 
j  w^est  Companies,  who  w^ere  struggling  for  supremacy  in 
J  the  country  northwest  from  Lake  Superior,  had  extended 
I  their  southern  line  of  operations  well  into  the  United 
States  territory.  The  Mackinaw  Company  with  other 
traders  controlled  the  territory  about  the  upper  lakes, 
and  westward  to  the  Mississippi.     The  trade   along  the 


The  Fur  Traders.  11 

Missouri  and  to  the  south  Avas  largely  in  the  hands  of  the 

Missouri  Company.    Finding  the  power  of  these  competing 

companies  too  great  to  be  combatted  by  him  individually 

he  offered,  if  given  aid  and  protection  by  the  Government, 

to  turn  the  whole  fur  trade  of  the  continent  into  American 

channels.     In  1809,  being  assured  of  Government  support, 

he  secured  from  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York  /   ^    f  ^ 

a  charter  incorporating  the  American  Fur  Company  with/  ^ 

a  capital  of  one  million  dollars  all  of  which  was  furnished 

by  himself. 

The  Canadian  companies  still  continued  their  rivalry; 
and  Mr.  Astor,  feeling  that  the  fur  trade  would  not  advan- 
tageously admit  of  this  foreign  competition  because  of  the 
advantage  which  the  restrictions  placed  by  the  United 
States  Government  upon  its  citizens  in  their  dealings  with 
the  Indiajis  gave  to  their  competitors,  who  had  a  free  hand 
in  regard  to  the  sale  of  liquor  and  other  articles,  made  a 
new  arrangement  by  which,  in  conjunction  with  certain  . 
partners  of  the  Northwest  Company,  he  bought  out  the  [ 
Mackinaw  Company.  With  the  sanction  of  the  United) 
States  Government  he  merged  the  Mackinaw  Company  and/ 
the  American  Company  into  a  new  corporation  known  aW 
The  South  West  Company.  By  this  combination  he  cam^ 
into  immediate  possession  of  half  of  the  posts  and  goods 
belonging  to  the  Mackinaw  Company  in  the  United  States, 
with  the  understanding  that  the  balance  would  be  conveyed 
to  the  South  AVest  Company  at  the  end  of  five  years,  if 
during  that  time  no  attempt  was  made  by  the  American 
Company  to  trade  within  the  British  dominion.  This 
merger  was  suspended  by  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  finally 
entirely  dissolved  by  an  act  of  Congress  prohibiting  Brit- 
ish fur  companies  from  prosecuting  their  operations  within 
the  territory  of  the  United  States. 

While  the  companies  we  have  mentioned  w^ere  pushing 
their  various  enterprises  in  the  east;  Captain  Cook  and 
others  reported  that  vast  quantities  of  sea  otter  were  to  be 
found  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  that  the  skins  of  these 
animals  were  bringing  fabulous  prices  in  China.  ''It  was 
as  if  a  new  gold  field  had  been  discovered.  There  was  a 
rush  of  adventurers  from  all  sections  to  join  in  this  traffic, 
and,  in  1792,  twenty-one  vessels,  under  different  flags,  but 
most  of  them  owned  by  Boston  merchants,  were  trading 


12  The  Fur  Traders. 

along  the  Pacific  coast."  These  vessels  would  run  in  near 
the  shore  and  anchor  and  wait  for  the  natives  to  come  off 
in  their  canoes  with  their  peltries;  and  when  trade  was 
exhausted  in  one  place,  would  sail  on  to  another.  Having 
collected  a  sufficient  cargo  of  skins  they  would  make  their 
way  to  China,  where  they  would  sell  their  furs  and  lay  in 
a  stock  of  teas,  nankeens,  and  other  merchandise  to  carry 
back  to  Boston  on  their  return,  after  an  absence  of  from 
two  to  three  years. 

The  Russians,  instead  of  making  casual  trips,  established 
regular  trading  stations  in  the  high  latitudes  along  the 
Northwest  Coast  of  America  and  on  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
under  the  control  of  a  company  incorporated  by  the  Rus- 
sian government,  with  a  capital  of  $250,000  and  exclusive 
trading  privileges.  The  Russian  crown  at  this  time  claimed 
sovereignty  over  all  the  territory  in  which  its  traders  were 
operating,  on  the  plea  that  the  land  had  been  discovered 
and  occupied  by  its  subjects.  The  company  referred  to  was 
called  the  Russian  Fur  Company,  and  succeeded  sixty  or 
more  smaller  organizations  that,  up  to  that  time,  had 
divided  the  Pacific  coast  traffic  among  them.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  company  were  at  Sitka.  It  was  dissolved 
in  1867,  after  the  sale  of  Alaska  to  the  United  States. 

As  China  was  the  great  market  for  furs  collected  in  this 
quarter  the  Russians  had  another  great  advantage  over  all 
their  competitors,  as  they  did  not  have  to  take  their  peltries 
to  Canton  for  distribution  through  the  empire,  but  were 
able  to  carry  them  on  their  own  vessels  by  a  shorter  jour- 
ney direct  to  those  parts  of  the  Chinese  Empire  where  they 
were  chiefly  consumed,  at  a  considerable  saving  in  time  and 
cost  of  transportation. 

The  Columbia  commanded  by  Captain  Gray  of  Boston 
was  one  of  the  American  ships  trading  along  the  north- 
west coast  in  1792.  At  latitude  40°  19'  north,  she  entered 
the  mouth  of  a  large  river,  and  anchored  in  a  beautiful  bay. 
The  river,  which  was  later  named  the  Columbia,  was  after- 
wards explored  by  Vancouver,  to  whom  Captain  Gray  had 
spoken  of  his  discovery. 

The  French  in  Canada  began  to  dream  of  a  northwest 
passage  to  the  Pacific  as  early  as  1670,  but  the  first  attempt 
to  find  an  overland  route  across  the  continent  was  made 
by  Captain  Jonathan  Carver,  in  1763,  with  the  sanction  of 


The  Fur  Traders.  13 

the  British  Government.  He  failed  to  accomplish  his  pur- 
pose ;  but  in  1792  an  expedition  conducted  by  Sir  Alexander 
McKenzie  succeeded  in  reaching  latitude  52°  20'  48".' 
McKenzie  at  once  realized  the  possibility  of  linking  together  | 
the  trade  on  both  sides  of  the  continent;  and  upon  his 
return  to  Montreal  he  suggested  that  to  prevent  conflict- 
ing interests  from  interfering  with  the  prosecution  of  this 
great  scheme,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  claiming  much 
of  the  territory  by  charter  rights,  and  the  Northwest  Com- 
pany, holding  by  right  of  possession,  should  join  issues  in 
the  undertaking ;  but  the  jealousies  of  these  two  companies 
were  too  great  to  permit  them  to  get  together. 

The  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  fitted  out  in  1804  by  the 
United  States  Government,  succeeded  where  Carver  had 
failed  in  1763.  The  expedition  ascended  the  Missouri, 
crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  never  before  visited  by  white 
'men  and  discovered  the  hitherto  unexplored  source  of  the 
Columbia  River,  which  they  followed  down  to  its  mouth 
where  Captain  Gray  had  anchored  twelve  years  before. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  Mr.  Astor  conceived  the  planj 
' '  of  grasping  with  his  individual  hand,  the  great  enterprise, 
which  had  been  doubtfully  contemplated  by  powerful  asso- 1 
ciations  and  paternal  governments. ' '  Where  they  had  feared 
to  venture  he  pushed  boldly  forward.  He  planned  to 
establish  a  line  of  fortified  trading  posts  extending  from  the 
Great  Lakes,  along  the  Ohio,  Missouri  and  Columbia  Rivers, 
with  a  supply  depot  at  the  mouth  of  the  latter  from  which 
to  furnish  supplies  to  the  trading  posts  of  the  far  west,  and 
to  the  coasting  vessels  with  which  he  proposed  to  trade 
along  the  northwest  coast.  A  ship  was  also  to  be  built  to 
carry  supplies  from  New  York  to  the  depot  on  the  Col- 
umbia and  take  the  collections  of  skins  from  there  to  China ; 
bringing  back  on  the  return  voyage,  cargoes  of  oriental 
merchandise. 

To  prevent  hostile  rivalry  on  the  part  of  the  Russian  Fur 
Company  this  ship  was  to  stop  regularly  at  the  stations  of 
that  company  with  supplies ;  so  that  the  Russian  company 
would  no  longer  be  dependent  upon  transient  trading  ves- 
sels owned  by  private  adventurers,  who,  actuated  only 
by  motives  of  present  gain,  supplied  the  natives  with  liquor 
and  firearms,  making  them  troublesome  and  dangerous 
neighbors  for  the  Russians,  and  causing  the  American  Gov- 


14  The  Fur  Traders. 

ernment  much  anxiety  lest  the  acts  of  these  American 
buccaneer  traders  should  give  offense  to  Russia,  at  that  time 
the  only  great  power  friendly  to  the  New  Republic,  It  will 
be  seen  from  this  that  not  only  was  Mr.  Astor's  project 
of  great  commercial  importance  to  himself,  but  it  was  also 
of  vital  interest  to  two  great  nations,  to  say  nothing  of  its 
effect  upon  the  colonization  of  the  Northwest. 

The  Northwest  Company  looked  with  unfriendly  eyes 
upon  Mr.  Astor's  scheme.  They  had  already  established 
an  advance  trading  post  beyond  the  Rockies  in  New  Cale- 
donia, as  the  strip  of  land  discovered  by  McKenzie  between 
the  territory  of  the  United  States  and  Russia  was  called. 
They  refused   an  offer  of  a  third  interest   in  his   enter- 

I prise,    and   secretly   sent   out   a   party   under   Mr.   David 
V  (Thompson  to  establish  a  post  at  the  mouth  of  the  Colum- 

I  bia  River  before  any  expedition  that  might  be  fitted  out 

j  by  Mr.  Astor  could  reach  there.  When  Mr.  Thompson 
with  nine  of  his  party,  the  rest  having  deserted  before  the 
expedition  crossed  the  mountains,  reached  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  in  July,  1811,  he  found  that  the  Pacific  Fur 
Company  was  already  in  possession. 

Some  of  the  retired  partners  and  clerks  of  the  Northwest 

/company  however  looked  with  favor  upon  proposals  made 
\Jto  them  by  Mr.  Astor,  and  on  June  23,  1810,  joined  him 
in  the  formation  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company.  These  men 
were  Alexander  McKay,  who  had  accompanied  Sir  Alex- 
ander McKenzie  on  both  of  his  expeditions  to  the  North- 
west Coast ;  and  Duncan  McDougal,  Donald  McKenzie,  and 
Robert  Stewart,  who  were  also  men  of  large  experience  in 
the  business  of  the  Northwest  Company.  In  addition  to 
these  the  partners  in  the  new  company  were,  Mr.  William 
Price  Hunt,  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  who  was-  to  act  as  Mr. 
Astor's  personal  representative  and  manager  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  while  Mr.  Astor  remained  in  charge  of  the  head- 
quarters of  the  company  in  New  York,  and  four  other 
Americans — Ramsey  Crooks,  Joseph  Miller,  Robert  McLel- 
lan,  and  John  Clark. ,  The  capital  stock  of  the  company 
was  two  hundred  thousand  dollars,  divided  into  one  hundred 
shares,  of  a  par  value  of  two  thousand  dollars  each.  Mr. 
Astor  was  assigned  fifty  shares,  Mr.  Hunt  five  shares,  and 
the  remaining  partners  four  shares  each.  The  balance  of 
the  stock  being  held  for  division  among  the  clerks  at  the 
end  of  five  years,  if  the  enterprise  proved  successful. 


The  Fur  Traders.  15 

Mr.  Astor  covenanted  to  bear  all  the  losses  that  might 
be  incurred  during  the  first  five  years,  after  vrhich  the  ex- 
penses were  to  be  shared  by  the  partners  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  interests.  As  he  also  furnished  all  the 
capital  it  will  be  seen  that,  as  in  the  case  of  the  South 
West  Company,  all  the  financial  responsibility  was  assumed 
by  Mr.  Astor,  and  the  controlling  power  was  vested  in  him. 
The  object  of  incorporation  simply  being  to  give  a  higher 
standing  to  the  enterprise,  and  to  bind  his  associates  to 
him  by  giving  them  an  interest  in  any  profits  that  should 
result  from  the  successful  prosecution  of  his  enterprise. 

Mr.  Astor 's  plans  called  for  two  expeditions  to  the  mouth/_X 
of  the  Columbia  River;  one  by  water  around  Cape  Horn, 
and  the  other  overland  along  the  route  taken  by  the  Lewis 
and  Clark  Expedition,  in  1804. 

The  sea-going  expedition  sailed  from  New  York,  Septem- 
ber 8,  1810,  on  the  Tonquin,  a  bark  of  290  tons  burden, 
manned  by  a  crew  of  twenty-two  sailors,  and  carrying  ten 
guns.  The  captain  was  Jonathan  Thorn,  a  lieutenant  in 
the  United  States  Navy,  on  leave  of  absence.  He  was  an 
honest  man  and  capable  navigator,  but  unfortunately  his 
harsh  and  arbitrary  treatment  of  his  passengers  was  a  cause 
of  constant  irritation  during  the  long  journey.  This  expe- 
dition was  in  charge  of  Duncan  McDougal,  who  was  accom-. 
panied  by  Alexander  McKay,  David  Stewart  and  his 
nephew  Robert,  partners  in  the  enterprise,  and  a  force  of 
fifty-three  clerks,  mechanics  and  canoe-men. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  the  clerks  were  bound 
to  service  in  the  company  for  five  years,  at  the  rate  of 
$100.00  a  year  payable  at  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
service,  and  an  annual  equipment  of  clothing  to  the  amount 
of  $40.00.  In  case  of  misconduct  or  neglect  of  duty  they 
were  liable  to  dismissal  and  the  forfeiture  of  any  wages 
that  might  be  due  them;  but  as  on  the  other  hand  they 
were  offered  promotions  and  partnerships  as  a  reward  for 
faithful  service,  it  must  be  admitted  that  if  Mr.  Astor  is  to 
be  charged  with  having  been  the  originator  of  the  business 
merger,  he  must  also  be  given  credit  for  introducing  the 
co-operative  system  into  the  business  relations  of  the 
employer  and  employee. 

The  Tonquin  rounded  Cape  Horn  in  December;  and  after 
making  stops  of  some  length  at  Hawaii,  and  the  Sandwich 


16  The  Fur  Traders. 

Islands  where  fifteen  islanders  were  added  to  the  force  of 
the  company,  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River, 
on  March  22,  1811.  After  spending  three  days  and  losing 
four  of  the  passengers  and  three  of  the  crew  in  efforts  to 
sound  the  channel  with  small  boats,  the  Tonquin  finally 
crossed  the  bar  on  March  25,  1811,  and  anchored  in 
Bakers  Bay,  as  the  estuary  formed  by  the  points  of  land 
terminating  in  Cape  Adama  and  Cape  Disappointment  is 
called.  Some  time  was  spent  in  exploring  the  shores  of  the 
bay  for  a  suitable  site  before  Mr.  McDougal  debarked 
with  forty-two  of  the  company,  all  but  four  of  whom  were 
British  subjects,  at  a  point  about  twelve  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  Here  a  slightly  elevated  position  had 
^been  selected  where  on  May  16th,  the  foundations  of 
Fort  Astoria  were  laid.  The  Tonquin,  with  three  of  the 
passengers,  eight  of  the  islanders,  and  the  sixteen  remaining 
members  of  her  crew,  sailed  on  June  1st,  on  a  trading  voy- 
age along  the  northwest  coast.  About  three  weeks  later  when 
they  were  anchored  off  Woody  Point  on  Vancouver's  Is- 
land, a  large  party  of  Indians  who  had  been  exasperated 
by  the  insults  offered  to  their  chief  by  the  Captain  on  a  pre- 
vious visit  returned,  and  after  some  time  spent  in  trading 
at  a  given  signal  suddenly  fell  upon  the  ship's  company. 
Taken  entirely  unawares  the  crew  and  the  passengers  made 
a  desperate  resistance,  but  the  Captain,  Mr.  McKay,  and  all 
but  five  of  the  party  who  had  escaped  to  the  cabin  were 
quickly  killed  by  the  savages.  The  five  in  the  cabin 
finally  succeeded  in  clearing  the  ship  by  firing  through 
the  skylights  and  companionway.  During  the  night  four  of 
them  left  the  vessel  in  the  long  boat,  hoping  to  make  their 
way  back  to  the  river.  The  other  survivor,  who  was 
wounded,  refused  to  accompany  them,  and  the  following 
morning  invited  the  Indians  who  had  gathered  on  the  shore 
in  large  numbei-s  to  come  on  board.  When  the  deck 
was  crowded  with  the  natives  he  fired  the  magazine  and 
blew  up  the  vessel,  killing  all  who  were  on  it.  Three  or 
four  days  later  the  men  in  the  boat  were  driven  ashore  in 
a  storm,  and  being  captured  by  the  Indians  while  trying 
to  make  their  way  inland  were  put  to  a  cruel  death.  The 
Indians  who  committed  this  outrage  were  members  of  the 
Wake-a-ninishes  tribe.  When  the  report  of  this  disaster 
reached  Astoria  late  in  the  fall  it  had  a  depressing  effect 


The  Fur  Traders.  17 

on  the  little  company  there;  and  as  the  months  passed  by 
without  bringing  any  tidings  of  Mr.  Hunt  and  his  overland 
party  it  was  feared  that  they  too  had  been  destroyed. 

Mr.  Hunt  accompanied  by  Donald  McKenzie  had 
reached  Montreal  in  June,  1810.  McKenzie  who  was  ex- 
perienced in  the  ways  of  the  traders  and  voyageurs  fa- 
vored securing  all  the  men  needed  for  the  expedition  before 
leaving  Montreal;  but  Hunt,  who  was  distrustful  of  the 
ever-changing  character  of  the  French  voyageurs,  decided 
to  wait  and  try  to  secure  the  services  of  American  adven- 
turers at  Mackinaw  and  St.  Louis,  and  they  left  Montreal 
with  only  a  dozen  French  voyageurs  to  man  the  canoes.  At 
Mackinaw,  which  at  that  time  was  the  great  outfitting  post 
of  the  south  and  was  frequented  by  all  the  adventurers 
who  operated  along  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi  Rivers, 
they  were  joined  by  Mr.  Ramsey  Crooks  one  of  the  Ameri- 
can partners  in  the  enterprise.  They  were  unable  to  secure 
suitable  men  for  their  purpose  here  as  the  place  seemed 
to  be  a  perfect  bedlam  of  dissipation  ''where  men  were 
drinking  in  the  morning,  drunk  at  noon  and  dead  drunk  at 
night."  To  add  to  their  troubles  the  agents  of  the  North- 
west and  Mackinaw  companies  were  doing  everything  they 
could  in  anj^  underhanded  way  to  prevent  them  from  se- 
curing recruits.  At  St.  Louis,  they  encountered  the  same 
hidden  opposition;  and  it  was  the  21st  of  October  before 
they  were  able  to  secure  a  sufficient  number  of  men  of  an 
inferior  class  to  warrant  their  continuing  the  journey  up 
the  Missouri  and  on  to  Fort  Nadowa,  where  they  arrived 
on  November  16th,  and  went  into  winter  quarters.  At  St. 
Louis,  they  had  been  joined  by  Mr.  James  Miller,  who  like 
Mr.  Crooks  had  formerly  traded  along  the  Missouri;  and 
at  Fort  Nadowa,  Mr.  Robert  McLellan,  the  last  of. the  part- 
ners to  join  the  expedition,  met  them.  The  start  from  Fort 
Nadowa  for  the  long  journey  to  the  coast  was  made  on 
April  22,  1811.  On  September  14th  they  crossed  the  divide, 
and  commenced  the  descent  of  the  western  slope.  At  Pilot 
Knob  or  Fort  Henry,  near  the  source  of  the  Snake  or 
Lewis  River,  the  great  southern  branch  of  the  Columbia, 
they  left  their  horses;  and  without  any  conception  of  the 
difficulties  before  them  embarked  in  fifteen  frail  canoes, 
hastily  constructed,  expecting  to  complete  their  journey  by 
following  the  river.    After  proceeding  three  hundred  and 


18  The  Fur  Traders. 

fifty  miles  they  became  convinced  of  the  impracticability  of 
navigating  the  dangerous  waters  of  the  torrential  mountain 
stream  and  gave  up  the  attempt. 

Considerable  time  was  spent  in  exploration,  and  in  vain 
efforts  to  fall  in  with  friendly  Indians  from  whom  they 
might  obtain  new  supplies  of  food,  before  they  finally 
decided  to  divide  into  four  bands,  each  of  which,  under 
command  of  one  of  the  partners,  was  to  make  its  way 
independently  to  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia.  The  parties 
under  IMcLellan  and  McKenzie  followed  the  right  bank  of 
the  river,  and  those  under  Hunt  and  Crooks  continued 
along  the  left  bank. 

McKenzie 's  party  suffered  many  hardships;  and  after 
they  entered  the  narrow  and  rugged  defiles  of  the  Blue 
Mountain  were  at  one  time  without  food  for  five  days  be- 
fore they  caught  a  beaver  on  whose  flesh  they  subsisted 
three  days ;  but  at  length  they  reached  the  main  waters  of 
the  Columbia  and  finally  on  January  10,  1812,  McKenzie, 
McLellan  and  Reed,  gaunt  and  haggard,  with  eight  others, 
some  of  them  scarcely  able  to  drag  themselves  along, 
reached  Astoria.  The  thirty-four  people  with  ^Ir.  Hunt  had 
an  easier  time,  but 'as  they  spent  some  daj's  resting  with 
friendly  Indians  they  did  not  reach  the  station  until  Febru- 
ary 15,  having  made  the  latter  part  of  the  journey  in  canoes. 

Crooks  and  Day,  who  with  four  Canadians  had  lost 
Hunt^s  trail  at  the  Grande  Ronde  and  remained  in  that 
vicinity  during  the  winter,  arrived  alone  on  May  10,  1812. 
Three  of  the  Canadians  had  abandoned  them  in  Febru- 
ary preferring  to  remain  with  the  Indians  rather  than  to 
continue  the  journey,  and  the  other  Canadian  was  left 
with  a  band  of  Shoshone  Indians  because  he  was  unable 
to  travel  further.  Seven  other  members  of  the  party 
who  had  been  detached  at  various  points  along  the 
route  reached  Astoria  neacly  a  year  later,  on  January  15, 
1813.  The  party  with  Mr.  Hunt  therefore  consumed 
340  days  in  making  the  trip  from  St.  Louis  to  Astoria ;  140 
days  being  spent  in  camp  at  various  points  along  the  route. 
Mr.  Hunt 's  estimate  of  the  distance  covered  was  3500  miles. 
The  most  direct  railroad  route  at  the  present  time  makes 
the  distance  2300  miles. 

There  has  always  been  a  disposition  to  criticize  Mr.  Aster 
for  entrusting  so  much  of  the  management  of  this  enter- 


The  Fur  Traders.  19 

prise  to  English  and  Scotch  partners.  He  claimed  that  as 
Oregon  at  that  time  was  disputed  territorj^,  it  was  the  part 
of  w^isdom  to  disarm  the  suspicions  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment, and  keep  them  from  active  interference  with  his 
plans,  by  letting  it  be  known  that  his  company  was  largely 
made  up  of  British  subjects.  From  a  careful  consideration 
of  all  the  facts  it  appears  however  as  if  the  chances  for  suc- 
cess would  have  been  better  if  the  positions  of  responsibility 
had  been  held  by  men  who  were  not  so  closely  connected 
with  those  in  control  of  the  Northwest  Company ;  for  when 
David  Thompson  appeared  at  Astoria  on  July  15,  1811,  with 
a  party  from  Spokane,  he  was  received  with  great  cor- 
diality by  Mr.  McDougal  who  in  the  absence  of  Mr.  Hunt 
was  in  charge  of  the  station,  although  there  was  a  sus- 
picion on  the  part  of  the  Americans  in  the  settlement  that 
Thompson  had  only  come  to  spy  upon  them  in  the  interests 
of  the  Northwest  Company,  and  to  discourage  them  with 
tales  of  the  dangers  and  hardships  before  them  if  they  re- 
mained at  the  station.  During  the  weary  months  when 
the  little  company  were  trying  to  maintain  their  position 
at  Astoria  there  were  other  instances  of  disloyalty  to  the 
new  organization  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  former  mem- 
bers of  the  Northwest  Company,  and  it  was  McDougal 
again  who  made  the  agreement  with  John  Laroche  and  John 
George  McTavish  in  October,  1813,  under  which  a  month 
later  all  the  furs  and  merchandise  in  the  country  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Astor  were  conveyed  to  the  Northwest  Company 
for  about  one-third  of  their  actual  value.  There  has  been 
some  controversy  as  to  whether  McDougal  was  acting  in 
good  faith  when  he  entered  into  this  contract,  and  it  is  a 
significant  fact  that  within  a  few  months  after  this  deal 
was  made  he  was  given  a  lucrative  position  by  the  North- 
west Company. 

As  Captain  Chittenden  in  his  ' '  History  of  the  American 
Fur  Trade, ' '  says :  "  It  is  no  flight  of  fancy,  but  rather  a 
sober  and  legitimate  conclusion,  to  say  that  if  the  Astorian 
enterprise  had  succeeded  the  course  of  Empire  on  the  . 
American  continent  would  have  been  entirely  different  ^ 
from  what  it  has  been.  With  the  valley  of  the  Columbia 
and  the  neighboring  shores  of  the  Pacific  occupied  by 
American  citizens  instead  of  British  subjects  during  the 
period  of  controversy  over  the  Oregon  question,  no  part 


20  The  Fur  Traders. 

of  the   Pacific    coast  line    would  now    belong    to    Great 
Britain." 

Washington  Irving  in  his  '' Astoria"  enters  fully  into 
the  details  of  the  struggle  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  to 
hold  the  advantages  it  had  gained  on  the  Pacific  Coast; 
but  it  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  note  the  circumstances 
of  its  organization  and  failure ;  and  it  only  remains  for  us 
to  say  that  on  December  12th,  1813,  Captain  Black  of  the 
British  sloop-of-war  Raccoon  raised  the  British  standard 
over  the  fort,  and  took  possession  of  the  establishment  and 
the  country  in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  changing  the 
name  of  Astoria  to  Fort  George. 

I  From  that  time  the  Northwest  Company  reigned  supreme 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  until  1821,  when  it  was  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Hudson 's  Bay  Company,  .which  thus  became 
the  representative  of  all  previous  fur  companies,  and  after 
entering  into  an  agreement  with  Russia  for  the  lease  of 
Alaska,  in  1839,  established  trading  posts  from  the  Bering 
Sea  to  San  Francisco ;  remaining  in  full  and  undisturbed 
possession  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  Northwest  until  it  was 
obliged  to  relinquish  its  exclusive  rights  by  the  treaty  of 
1846.  It  was  not  until  i860,  however  that  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  finally  abandoned  its  various  establish- 
ments in  Oregon  and  Washington,  and  transferred  all  its 
movable  property  not  disposed  of  to  Fort  Victoria  on 
Vancouver  Island. 

In  1863,  the  old  shareholders,  alive  to  the  signs  of  the 
times,  allowed  themselves  to  be  persuaded  to  sell  out  to  a 
"New  Company  of  Proprietors,"  who  later  sold  their  rights 
— real  and  imaginery — ^to  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  for  three 
hundred  thousand  pounds.  Since  that  time,  though  they 
still  continue  to  exist  as  a  powerful  merchant  company 
exerting  a  dominating  influence  on  the  fur  trade,  the  Hud- 
son 's  Bay  Company  have  been  * '  lords  of  the  soil ' '  only  over 
an  area  of  a  mile  around  each  one  of  their  forts ;  and  even 
the  district  of  which  Edmonton  is  the  center  and  in  which 
for  many  years  they  held  exclusive  trading  privileges  is 
''open  country,"  where  other  large  firms  have  established 
trading  posts  or  agencies,  and  where  individual  collectors 
travel  from  point  to  point  purchasing  the  catch  of  trap- 
pers who  do  not  come  to  the  posts.  Every  year  the  number 
of  skins  passing  directly  from  the  hands  of  the  collectors 


The  Fur  Traders.  21 

into  those  of  the  manufacturers  and  skin  dealers  is  in- 
creasing, but  the  final  values  are  still,  to  a  large  degree, 
determined  by  the  prices  obtained  at  the  Fur-Marts,  or  fairs, 
held  at  stated  times  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  and  which 
form  the  subject  of  another  chapter. 

"The  organization  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  Northwest 
companies,  their  internal  regulations,  method  of  dealing 
with  the  Indians,  and  policy  in  preserving  the  fur-bearing 
animals  from  extinction,  were  the  outgrowth  of  long  ex- 
perience, and  embodied  the  highest  wisdom  in  the  man- 
agement of  their  extensive  affairjs.  The  experience  of  each 
of  the  rivals  was  added  to  that  of  the  other  in  the 
amalgamated  company  after  1821,  and  formed  one  of  the 
most  perfect  commercial  organizations  of  which  the  world 
has  any  knowledge.  The  systems  of  service  and  pro- 
motion protected  the  company  from  incompetent  servants. 
To  gain  high  position  in  the  service  one  must  begin  at  the 
bottom  and  work  up.  All  must  work  for  the  company's 
interest,  and  none  were  allowed  to  engage  in  any  private 
trade.  Employes  were  frequently  changed  in  station  to 
break  up  any  irregular  practices  which  might  grow  up 
with  long  residence  in  one  place,  and  this  rotation  was 
taken  advantage*  of  to  reward  faithful  service  and  punish 
the  reverse.  The  company's  officers  had  power  to  try  and 
punish  offenders.  Military  duty  was  exacted  whenever 
necessary,  and  a  regular  uniform  was  provided.  The 
whole  organization,  from  the  governor  down  through  fac- 
tors, traders  and  clerks,  to  the  lowest  local  manager, 
was  based  upon  the  principle  of  perfect  discipline,  absolute 
subordination  of  individual  interest  to  that  of  the  com- 
pany, and  a  regular  promotion  based  upon  merit.  Long 
experience  had  perfected  all  parts  of  this  intricate 
machine,  and  not  even  the  greatest  of  modern  railway 
systems  can  excel  it  in  thoroughness  of  detail  and  or- 
ganization. ' ' 

''In  its  dealings  with  the  Indians  the  same  wise  policy 
was  apparent.  Where  not  necessary  to  meet  competition 
the  sale  of  liquor  to  the  natives  was  not  generally  indulged 
in.  All  trade  was  upon  a  fixed,  though  just,  basis,  and  the 
Indians  knew  exactly  what  to  expect.  The  traders  were 
men  of  experience  with  the  natives,  and  were  well 
acquainted  with  the  Indian  character.    Intermarriage  with 


22  The  Fur  Traders. 

native  women  was  common  from  the  chief  officers  down 
to  the  ranks,  and  thus  bonds  of  mutual  intf.'rest  were 
created.  Although  this  company  did  not  always  escape 
difficulties  with  the  Indians,  it  was  generally  on  terms  of 
peace  with  them,  and  its  hold  upon  them  as  against  irregu- 
lar traders  was  w^ell-nigh  absolute.  It  may  readily  be  seen 
how  powerless  must  have  been  a  private  trader  and  even 
a  strong  company  against  this  embodiment  of  powder, 
w^ealth  and  organization." 

We  have  only  outlined  the  operations  of  some  of  the 
most  important  companies  of  fur  traders ;  for  the  story  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  alone  w^ould  fill  many  volumes, 
if  told  in  detail  from  the  date  of  its  romantic  formation 
down  to  the  present  day  w^hen  it  is  devoting  much  of  its 
time  and  resources  to  the  more  prosaic  work  of  opening  up 
a  chain  of  mammoth  department  stores  in  Galgary,  Edmon- 
ton, Victoria,  and  other  growing  commercial  centers  in 
British  Columbia.  As  George  Bryce  says:  "For  full 
two  centuries  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  under  its 
original  charter,  undertook  financial  enterprises  of  the 
greatest  magnitude,  promoted  exploration  and  discovery^ 
at  one  time  held  governing  powers  over  an  empire  com- 
prising nearly  one-half  of  North  America,  and  preserved 
to  the  British  Empire  the  w^ide  territory  handed  over  to 
Canada  in  1870 ;  and  for  more  than  two  generations  since 
that  time,  it  has  carried  on  a  successful  trade  in  competi- 
tion with  many  rivals,  and  still  shows  all  the  vigor  of 
youth.  Whatever  ground  there  may  be  for  criticism  of 
some  of  the  earlier  methods  of  this  great  organization,  the 
wonder  is  that  with  the  extensive  powders  it  has  enjoyed, 
it  should  bear  after  its  long  career,  over  such  an  extended 
area  of  operations,  and  under  so  many  different  conditions, 
so  honorable  a  record." 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  it  is  true  always  been 
a  keen  trader,  as  its  motto  "Pro  Pelle  Cutem" — skin  for 
skin — implies ;  but  with  this  surely  no  fault  can  be  found. 
One  of  the  greatest  testimonials  in  its  favor  is  that  when 
after  two  centuries  it  voluntarily  gave  up  except  as  a 
purely  trading  companj^  its  power  in  Canada,  its  influence 
over  the  Avidespread  Indian  population  of  Rupertsland  w^as 
so  great  that  it  was  asked  by  the  Canadian  government  to 
retain  one-twentieth  of  the  land  of  that  wide  domain,  as 


The  Fur  Traders.  23 

a  guarantee  of  its  assistance  in  transferring  power  from 
the  old  to  the  new  regime.  What  better  proof  can  we  ask 
that  on  the  whole  those  in  control  of  the  operations  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  borne  their  honors 
meekly,  and  exercised  their  great  power  for  the  good  of 
the  people  in  general  as  well  as  for  the  best  interests  of 
the  company  they  served. 

That  John  Jacob  Astor,  in  organizing  The  South  West 
Company,  and  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  was  also  animated 
by  a  higher  motive  than  the  mere  promptings  of  a  personal 
ambition,  is  evidenced  by  the  following  extract  from  a 
letter  written  to  his  partner,  Mr.  Hunt,  at  the  time  when 
the  treachery  of  associates,  the  chances  of  war,  and  the 
machinations  of  the  Northwest  Company  were  threaten- 
ing disaster  to  his  enterprise  on  the  Pacific  coast.  He 
says:  ''Were  I  on  the  spot  I  should  defy  them  all;  but 
as  it  is  everything  depends  on  you  and  the  friends  about 
you.  Our  enterprise  is  grand  and  deserves  success,  and  I 
hope  in  God  it  will  meet  it.  If  my  object  was  merelj^  gain 
of  money  I  should  say,  save  what  you  can  and  abandon 
the  place;  but  under  the  conditions  the  very  idea  is  a 
dagger  to  my  heart."  If  anything  further  is  needed,  to 
prove  that  he  thought  at  least  as  much  of  the  effect  that 
the  failure  of  his  plans  would  have  upon  other  interests, 
public  and  private,  as  of  any  personal  loss  it  would  bring 
to  him,  it  is  furnished  in  the  words  with  which  he  received 
the  news  of  the  sale  of  his  Pacific  coast  properties  to. the 
Northwest  Company  by  McDougal,  ''I  had  rather  lost  all 
by  capture  while  trying  to  defend  the  fort." 

No  one  who  has  carefully  read  the  history  of  the  de-" 
velopment  of  the  fur  trade  as  it  is  related  by  Washington 
Irving,  George  Bryce  and  Captain  Chittenden,  will  ques- 
tion the  statement — that  the  men  who  formed,  and  con- 
trolled the  policies  of  the  companies  who  laid  the 
foundations  of  this  great  commercial  enterprise,  were  not 
only  captains  of  industry,  but  empire  builders  of  the 
highest  order.  No  better  illustration  of  this  can  be  found 
than  the  following  brief  sketch  of  Lord  Strathcona's  life, 
and  his  connection  with  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 


24  The  Fur  Traders. 

Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Donald  Alexander  Smith,  Lord  Strathcona 
and  Mount  Royal,  was  born  at  Torres,  Moryshire,  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  August  6th,  1821.  He  was  given  a  good 
English  and  classical  education,  and  in  1838  entered  the 
service  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  He  was  first  sent 
to  Mingen,  Labrador,  a  desolate  region,  where  he  remained 
thirteen  years  before  he  was  given  a  post  in  the  great 
Northwest  in  whose  history  and  development  he  took  such 
an  important  part.  During  his  stay  on  the  Labrador  coast 
he  was  attacked  with  color  blindness,  and  apprehensive  of 
losing  his  sight  decided  to  go  to  Montreal  to  consult  a  good 
oculist.  The  journey  at  that  time  was  a  perilous  one,  but 
accompanied  by  two  half-breed  guides  he  finally  reached 
his  destination.  When  he  presented  himself  at  the  head- 
quarters of  the  company  he  was  censured  for  leaving  his 
post  without  authority,  and  commanded  to  return  without 
delay.  Discouraged  and  disgusted  at  the  reception  given 
him  he  was  on  the  point  of  throwing  up  his  position,  but 
upon  consideration  wisely  decided  to  return  to  Mingen 
and  remain  in  the  company 's  service.  'His  trip  to  Montreal, 
however  proved  a  benefit  in  the  end,  as  it  helped  to  show 
those  in  authority  the  kind  of  material  he  was  made  of, 
and  he  was  promoted  step  by  step  until  he  became  a  chief 
factor.  Later  he  was  named  resident  Governor  and  Chief 
Commissioner  of  the  Company  in  Canada,  a  position  which 
he  held  until  1870,  when  he  presided  at  the  last  meeting 
of  the  Council  of  Officers  held  at  Norway  House  before  the 
reorganization  of  the  Company.  Subsequently  he  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  the  Board  in  London ;  and  in  1886  he 
was  created  a  Knight  Commander  of  the  orders  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George  for  his  services  to  the  government 
in  Red  River  rebellion  in  1869  and  on  other  occasions. 

''The  officers  who  had  charge  of  the  various  districts  in 
the  Northwest  annually  met  in  a  Council  for  the  regula- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  business  for  the  ensuing  year.  Look- 
ing upon  themselves  as  partners  of  the  Company,  they  felt 
that  they  were  entitled  to  participate  with  the  shareholders 
in  any  amount  which  might  be  received  for  the  cession  of 
the  territorial  rights  of  the  Company.  When  therefore  the 
Company  had  come  to  an  agreement  with  the  Colonial 
Office  for  a  transfer  to  the  Canadian  Government  of  its 


The  Fur  Traders.  25 

territorial  rights  upon  the  payment  of  three  hundred 
thousand  pounds,  the  officers  of  the  company  felt  that  they 
should  receive  a  share  of  that  amount.  In  1870  the  Council 
of  Officers  already  referred  to  was  held  at  Norway  House 
on  Lake  Winnipeg  and  it  was  decided  to  present  the 
claims  of  the  officers  to  the  Company  in  England.  With 
this  object  Mr.  Smith,  who  as  Governor  at  Fort  Garry  was 
present  at  the  Council,  was  unanimously  appointed  as  rep- 
resentative of  the  officers,  and  undertook  the  task  of  pre- 
senting their*claims.  The  result  of  his  mission  was  that 
compensation  was  given  to  the  officers  for  the  relinquish- 
ment of  their  claims,  the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  seven 
thousand  pounds  being  divided  amongst  them,  and  a  new 
agreement,  called  the  Deed  Poll  of  1871,  was  entered  into. 

'^The  officers  felt  that  to  the  judgment  and  discretion  of 
Mr.  Donald  A.  Smith  was  due  the  just  recognition  of  their 
claims,  and  when  he  returned  in  the  following  year  they 
presented  him  with  a  valuable  testimonial  of  their  esteem. 
Mr.  Smith  was  appointed  Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Com- 
pany under  the  new  Deed  Poll  and  assumed  control  of 
affairs  at  Winnipeg.  In  1874,  Mr.  Smith  owing  to  his  par- 
liamentary and  other  duties  gave  up  the  position  of  Chief 
Commissioner,  so  far  as  the  control  of  trade  matters  was 
concerned.  In  this  position  he  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  James 
A.  Grahame,  although  he  still  retained  the  management  and 
control  of  the  Company 's  land  affairs  and  continued  to  take 
the  deepest  interest  in  its  welfare. 

''The  affairs  of  the  Company  continued  with  varying 
success  and  in  accordance  with  the  condition  of  the  times, 
but  with  no  occurrence  of  public  importance,  until  in  1879, 
Mr.  Donald  A.  Smith  resigned  his  official  connection  with 
the  Company.  The  committee  in  accepting  his  resignation, 
referred  to  the  many  important  arrangements  in  which  he 
had  taken  a  part,  and  expressed  their  gratitude  for  the 
fidelity  which  he  had  displayed  to  the  general  interests  of 
all  concerned. '' 

Mr.  Smith  had  served  his  country  as  faithfully  as  the  com- 
pany he  represented,  and  after  he  retired  from  business  life 
devoted  all  his  time  and  energies  to  the  public  service,  hold- 
ing high  administrative  positions  in  Canada  and  being  con- 
sulted by  the  Home  Office  on  all  important  questions  relat- 
ing to  that  territory.  He  well  merited  the  honors  and 
titles  later  bestowed  upon  him  by  his  Sovereign. 


26  The  Fur  Traders. 

The  Missonri  Fur  Company  was  the  first  to  operate  from 
St.  Louis  westward.  It  had  nearly  run  its  course  before 
either  of  its  principal  competitors  was  well  established. 
Like  that  of  many  other  great  institutions,  the  history  of 
this  company  is  practically  the  history  of  one  man — 
Manuel  Lisa,  who  was  born  at  New  Orleans,  September 
8, 1772.  About  the  year  1800,  he  secured  from  the  Spanish 
government  the  exclusive  right  to  trade  with  the  Osage 
Indians.  In  1808  he  was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  St.  Louis  Missouri  Fur  (Company,  and 
became  still  more  prominent  in  its  management  after  its 
reorganization  in  1811.  The  other  members  of  the  com- 
pany were :  Benjamin  Wilkinson,  Pierre  Chouteau,  Sr., 
Auguste  Chouteau,  Jr.,  Reuben  Lewis,  "William  Clark, 
Sylvester  Labadie,  all  of  St.  Louis;  Pierre  Menard 
and  William  Morrison,  of  Kaskaskia,  Illinois;  Andrew 
Henry,  of  Louisiana,  and  Dennis  FitzHugh,  of  Louis- 
ville, Kentucky.  The  company  included  some  of  the 
best  traders  in  the  west,  but  owing  to  a  series  of  unfor- 
tunate circumstances  beyond  their  control  the  expecta- 
tions of  its  founders  w^ere  never  fully  realized.  Another 
reorganization  took  place  in  1819  and,  with  the  exception 
of  Manuel  Lisa,  not  one  of  the  names  of  the  founders  of 
the  old  company  appeared  on  the  new  charter;  which 
shows  that  the  members  were :  Manuel  Lisa,  president ; 
Thomas  Hempstead,  Joshua  Pilcher,  Joseph  Perkins, 
Andrew  Woods,  Moses  Carson,  John  B.  Zenoni,  Andrew 
Drips,  and  Robert  Jones.  The  company  continued  in 
existence  until  about  1830,  when  its  affairs  were  finally 
wound  up. 

!  The  great  mistake  of  the  Missouri  Fur  Compan}^  was 
their  unwillingness  to  permit  Mr.  Astor  to  have  any  share 
in  the  business,  as  he  was  probably  the  only  man  who 
could  have  carried  them  through  their  initial  misfortunes 
to  ultimate  success. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  incorporation  of  the 
American  Fur  Company  by  Mr.  Astor,  April  6,  1808.  As 
was  then  stated  Mr.  Astor  was  the  company,  and  the 
incorporation  was  merely  a  fiction  to  broaden  and  facili- 
tate his  operations. 

When  Congress  by  its  action  suspended  the  operations 
of  the  South  West  Company,  and  the  Pacific  coast  enter- 


The  Fur  Traders.  27 

prise  also  ended  in  failure;  Mr.  Astor  soon  regained  the 
ground  he  had  lost,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  Act  of 
April  29,  1816,  by  which  the  Northwest  Company,  as  well 
as  the  South  West  Company,  was  compelled  to  relinquish 
its  interests  on  American  territory.  He  secured  control  of 
the  American  business  of  both  of  these  conjpanies  by 
establishing  a  new  coast  to  coast  connection  through  the 
operations  of  the  Pacific  Fur  Company,  and  the  western 
department  of  the  American  Fur  Company  at  St.  Louis, 
which  at  that  time  was  the  starting  point  for  all  expedi- 
tions to  the  far  west,  and  the  transfer  point  for  freight 
shipped  into  the  remote  regions  from  the  east,  as  well  as 
the  merchandise  and  skins  sent  from  the  Pacific  slope,  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  the  mountain  country  to  the  eastern 
market. 

Among  the  articles  of  trade  that  were  exchanged  for 
the  furs  of  the  Indians  liquor  was  at  all  times  by  far  the 
most  important.  It  is  impossible  to  exaggerate  its  im- 
portance at  that  time,  and  it  is  only  by  understanding  the 
conditions  of  the  business  that  one  can  account  for  the 
almost  frantic  appeals  that  were  continually  pouring  into 
the  office  of  the  American  Fur  Company  at  St.  Louis  for 
more  liquor.  ''Liquor  we  must  have,  or  we  might  as  well 
give  lip"  is  a  sample  of  the  complaints  that  burdened  the 
correspondence  of  the  traders.  Chittenden  says,  ''It  was 
impossible  to  conduct  the  trade  without  it  if  one's  oppo- 
nent was  provided  with  it,  the  only  alternative  being  to 
retire  from  the  field. 

"The  Act  of  July  9,  1832,  prohibiting  absolutely  the 
introduction  of  liquor  into  the  Indian  country,  was  there- 
fore simply  appalling  to  Mr.  McKenzie,  who  was  in  charge 
of  the  company's  trading  interests.  He  had  no  confidence 
that  the  small  traders  would  be  held  to  the  law  by  the  in- 
spectors, and  he  knew  that  if  they  were,  they  would 
smuggle  liqvior  by  them.  He  had  learned  from  experience 
that  the  great  commerce  of  the  American  Fur  Company 
made  such  clandestine  work  impossible,  especially  as  they 
were  operating  in  the  enemy's  country  where  there  was 
a  spy  at  every  turn,  McKenzie 's  first  move  was  to  go  to 
Washington  and  New  York  and  see  if  he  could  not  affect 
some  modification  of  the  i"egulation  for  enforcing  the 
liquor  law.  He  was  entirely  unsuccessful  in  ;his  mission, 
and  returned  to  St.  Louis  with  gloomy  forebodings  for  the 


28  The  Fur  Traders. 

future.  There  was  no  course  now  open,  apart  from  exten- 
sive smuggling  which  was  an  extremely  perilous  business 
for  the  company  at  that  time,  except  to  carry  out  an 
ingenious  and  radical  measure  which  for  some  time  had 
been  developing  in  McKenzie's  mind.  This  was  nothing 
less  than  to  open  up  a  distillery  at  Fort  William  and  com- 
mence the  manufacture  of  liquor  on  his  own  account.  He 
would  be  within  the  law  he  reasoned,  because  that  forbade 
only  the  importation  of  liquor  into  the  Indian  country. 
To  such  feeble  subterfuges  did  the  exigencies  of  the  fur 
trade  drive  men  of  real  and  unquestioned  ability.  The 
house  in  St.  Louis  took  legal  advice  in  the  matter  and 
astonishing  as  it  may  seem  succeeded  in  getting  an  opinion 
in  favor  of  the  project;  and  in  1833,  in  spite  of  strong 
opposition  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
pany, the  distillery  was  set  up  and  put  in  operation  at  Fort 
William. 

''There  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  experiment  was  a 
complete  success.  McKenzie  was  greatly  elated  over  the 
results  for  it  placed  him  on  a  footing  of  independence  and 
unquestioned  superiority  over  his  rivals.  In  writing  to 
Crooks  he  said :  '  I  have  a  good  corn  mill,  a  respectable  dis- 
tillery, and  can  produce  as  fine  liquor  as  need  be  drunk. 
I  believe  no  law  of  the  United  States  is  broken  by  us,  though 
perhaps  one  may  be  made  to  break  up  my  distillery;  but 
liquor  I  must  have  or  quit  any  pretension  to  trade  in  these 
parts.'  But  alas,  at  the  very  moment  that  McKenzie  was 
writing  his  exultant  letter  to  his  chief  in  St.  Louis  the 
latter  was  agitated  with  very  different  emotions,  for  he 
had  but  lately  experienced  in  a  forcible  way  the  proof  of 
the  adage  that  'The  way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard.' 

' '  The  distillery  business  had  been  reported  to  the  United 
States  government  and  mischief  was  to  pay.  The  gov- 
ernment authorities  were  highly  incensed  at  this  obvious 
contempt  of  law.  The  company  had  a  life  and  death  strug- 
gle and  it  was  only  by  a  dangerously  narrow  margin  that 
it  saved  its  life." 

Mr.  Astor  retired  from  the  American  Fur  Company  on 
the  first  of  June,  1834,  when  the  Northern  Department  re- 
taining the  name  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  was  sold 
to  a  company  of  which  Ramsey  Crooks  was  the  principal 
partner,  and  the  Western  Department  to  Pratt,  Chouteau 
&  Co.,  of  St.  Louis. 


29 


FUR  FARMING. 

Fur  Farming  is  only  in  its  infancy,  but  the  success  which 
has  rewarded  the  efforts  of  those  who  have  faithfully  and 
intelligently  labored  to  rear  foxes,  skunks,  minks  and  other 
species  of  fur-bearing  animals  in  captivity,  demonstrates 
the  possibilities  of  the  industry  when  properly  conducted 
under  right  conditions.  Fur  Farming  has  little  to  offer  to 
those  who  engage  in  it  as  a  ''get  rich  quick"  scheme,  but 
for  the  man  who  is  willing  to  accept  a  reasonable  com- 
pensation for  his  time  and  the  money  invested  in  the 
enterprise  while  working  for  the  full  development  of  his 
plans,  it  promises  larger  returns  than  any  other  business  in 
which  he  could  engage  with  the  same  amount  of  capital. 

The  Hon.  Charles  Dalton,  after  twenty  years  of  successful 
operation,  sold  his  fox  ranch  on  Prince  Edward  Island  for 
six  hundred  thousand  dollars,  and  Mr.  Tuplin  received  two 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  his  farm ;  but  these 
men  made  a  study  of  the  animals  they  were  raising  and 
conducted  their  operations  along  scientific  lines,  at  all  times 
giving  the  best  that  was  in  them  to  the  work  in  hand,  and 
looking  to  the  future  rather  than  to  the  immediate  present 
for  results.  What  they  succeeded  in  doing  with  foxes,  and 
others  have  accomplished  with  skunks,  can  also  be  done  with 
minks,  raccoons,  opossums,  muskrats,  and  possibly  bears 
and  lynxes,  although  it  does  not  appear  probable  that 
martens,  fishers,  weasels,  wild  cats  or  wolves  can  be  profit- 
ably domesticated. 

The  Fur  Farmer  will  find  that  unless  the  animals  have 
plenty  of  runway  they  will  not  fur  properly.  If  they  are 
kept  in  restricted  quarters,  or  penned  up  in  a  small 
enck)sure,  the  pelt  or  hide  will  be  thick  and  the  fur  thin; 
the  reason  for  the  thick,  silky,  glossy  fur  on  skins  that  come 
from  some  of  the  ranches  is  that  the  animals  have  plenty  of 
room  and  an  abundant  varied  diet ;  skunks  for  instance  that 
are  fed  principally  on  meat,  to  the  exclusion  of  vegetables 
and  fruit,  will  not  present  as  fine  an  appearance  as  those 
that  are  raised  on  a  mixed  diet.  The  thing  to  strive  for 
is  to  duplicate  as  far  as  possible  the  natural  conditions 
under  which  the  animal  is  at  its  best.  It  is  impossible  to 
improve  on  nature. 


30  Fur  Farming. 

Another  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  natural  nervousness 
of  wild  animals  when  placed  in  restraint,  and  subjected  to 
unusual  sights  and  surroundings ;  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  avoid  anything  that  might  startle  them  or  cause  them  to 
take  alarm.  The  young  at  least  if  properly  protected  will 
soon  become  tame,  and  instead  of  worrying  the  fat  off  their 
bodies,  and  the  hairs  off  their  hides,  will  grow  sleek,  and 
develop  a  fine  pelage. 

When  the  killing  time  comes  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
frighten  the  animals  that  are  to  be  kept  for  breeding 
purposes.  The  animals  to  be  slaughtered  should  be  driven 
into  a  separate  enclosure  and  out  of  sight  of  the  others 
before  being  killed. 

FOX  RAISING. 

Benjamin  L.  Raynor  of  Alberton,  P.  E.  I.,  Canada,  and 
Jj  Walter  Jones  of  Washington,  D.  C,  have  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  fox-breeding  industry  on  Prince  Edward 
Island.  The  report  of  their  investigations  first  appeared  in 
the  '  *  American  Breeders  Magazine./ '  It  was  republished  by 
the  ''Fur  Trade  Review"  in  November,  1912,  and  is  the 
source  of  much  of  the  information  this  chapter  contains 
relative  to  ''fox  farming"  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada^ 

Foxes  that  have  been  kept  as  pets  and  in  zoological 
gardens  have  never  been  known  to  rear  their  young.  The 
reason  for  this  seems  to  be  the  extreme  nervousness  of  the- 
females,  who  have  been  known  to  go  about  for  days  with 
their  young  in  their  mouths,  putting  them  first  in  one  place 
and  then  carrying  them  to  another,  until  finally  the  pups 
have  died  from  the  effects  of  exposure  and  handling. 
Keepers  often  watch  by  the  pens  day  and  night  for  weeks 
^t  a  time,  to  prevent  the  mothers  from  injuring  themselves 
or  their  young.  The  females  are  so  wild  during  the  breed- 
ing season  that  the  ranchers  make  it  a  rule  to  close  the 
ranches  in  January,  and  allow  no  one  but  the  keepers  to  go 
near  the  pens  between  that  time  and  June  when  the  young 
are  out  and  playing  about.  It  is  stated  that  during  the 
period  that  the  pups  are  with  the  mother  the  keepers  always 
wear  the  same  clothes,  lest  a  change  in  their  appearance 
should  worry  the  sensitive  animals. 
•  The  behavior  of  a  mother  fox  on  a  ranch  in  Ontario,  is 
referred  to  as  illustrating  how  little  it  takes  at  certain 


Fur  Farming,  31 

times  to  cause  trouble.  The  rauch  owner  whose  home  could 
be  plainly  seen  from  the  pen,  made  a  contract  to  have  his 
house  painted.  When  the  painters  started  to  work,  the 
sight  of  a  stranger  or  the  smell  of  the  paint  so  excited  the 
mother  fox  that  she  brought  out  her  young  and  killed  them. 

In  their  wild  state  the  males  are  monogamous  and  forage 
for  their  young.  On  the  ranches,  where  all  the  food  is 
provided,  there  is  danger  of  two  parents  killing  the  pups 
by  over  attention,  so  the  males  are  separated  from  the  rest 
of  the  family  in  March,  and  kept  apart  until  the  young  are 
able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The  period  of  gestation  is 
exactly  fifty-one  days.  The  young  arrive  in  March,  April 
or  early  May.  Litters  of  from  one  to  as  many  as  eight  have 
been  recorded,  but  the  average  is  about  four  pups.  The 
price  of  one  thousand  dollars  was  refused  for  a  female  fox 
that  had  reared  eighteen  young  in  three  years.  Foxes 
mature  for  fur  or  breeding  in  eight  months  and  they  are 
fertile  for  nine  or  ten  years.  The  custom  appears  to  be 
growing  among  breeders  to  mate  one  male  w^ith  two  or  more 
agreeable  females.  It  is  plain  that  by  this  method  a 
selection  of  sire  can  be  made,  and  quicker  improvement  in 
quality  achieved. 

During  the  productive  period  of  about  nine  years,  the 
average  production  of  a  pair  of  foxes  will  be  about  thirty 
young.  If  these  are  of  the  best  stock  the  pelts  will  be  worth 
$1,500  each  at  the  present  market  prices,  so  the  yearly 
profits  from  a  pair  should  be  about  $5,000.  Every  joint 
stock  company  that  is  formed  and  hires  a  manager  can- 
not however  expect  to  procure  such  results.  Efficient 
managers  are  very  hard  to  find  and  the  best  management 
will  not  prevent  occasional  escapes  and  thefts.  The  in- 
dustry is  best  prosecuted  on  a  diversified  farm  where 
w^aste  food  material,  quiet,  and  the  personal  interest  of 
the  owmers,  will  go  farther  toward  assuring  success  than 
any  skilled  management  that  capital  can  purchase.  The 
business  can  be  very  profitably  prosecuted  by  neighbors 
w^ho  wdll  unite  in  the  feeding,  care  and  protection  of  the 
stock  from  thieves,  and  in  the  hunting  and  trapping  of 
escaped  animals. 

.  In  any  well  settled  country  there  is  always  enough  cheap 
food  to  provide  for  hundreds  of  foxes.  A  healthy  old 
horse  or  cow^ ;  livers,  heads,  feet  and  other  refuse ;  calves, 


32  Fur  Farming. 

fish,  bread,  milk,  eggs,  rabbits,  and  even  poultry,  make 
the  best  kind  of  Fox  food.  A  nursing  mother  Fox  should 
get  plenty  of  eggs,  milk  and  porridge.  On  the  average,  in  a 
province  like  Prince  Edward  Island  settled  with  fifty  peo- 
ple to  the  square  mile  it  costs  from  two  to  three  cents  per 
day  to  feed  a  Fox.  Some  of  the  ranches  have  great  num- 
bers of  rabbits  inside  the  outer  fence,  which  gives  the 
Foxes  a  chance  for  an  occasional  chase  and  an  opportunity 
to  secure  familiar  food  in  the  natural  way. 

Soil,  climate  and  location  must  always  be  considered 
when  choosing  a  farm  for  breeding  purposes.  A  lime- 
stone or  alkaline  soil  will  decrease  the  value  of  the  fur 
by  making  it  harsh  and  brittle.  A  cold  climate  is  a  prime 
necessity  for  the  production  of  high  class  fur,  and  the 
Fox  pens  must  be  secluded  from  the  intrusion  or  even  ob- 
servation of  strange  men  and  animals.  A  forest  covering, 
preferably  of  spruce,  fir,  pine  or  cedar,  is  very  desirable. 

A  farmer  while  hunting  some  straying  cows  in  the 
woods  in  1888,  found  a  male  and  a  female  Silver  Fox  pup 
in  the  hollow  of  a  log.  He  carried  them  home  and  traded 
them  to  a  neighbor  for  a  coav  and  a  few  extra  dollars. 
The  neighbor  experimented  for  several  years  with  various 
kinds  of  pens  and  treatment,  but  finally  becoming  dis- 
couraged sold  the  Foxes  to  another  neighbor  for  eighty 
dollars.  This  party  was  no  more  successful  than  the  pre- 
vious owner,  and  soon  sold  the  Foxes  to  a  ranch  owner 
who  lived  on  an  island  in  Cascumpec  Bay.  The  quiet  of 
the  new  place,  the  increasing  tameness  of  the  Foxes,  and 
the  new  owner's  knowledge  of  the  requirements,  produced 
conditions  that  relieved  the  nervous  mother's  apprehen- 
sion for  the  safety  of  her  young,  and  three  pups  were 
reared  to  maturity  in  three  seasons.  This  success,  al- 
though the  result  of  eight  years  of  experimentation, 
caused  six  men  who  thoroughly  understood  the  science 
of  rearing  Foxes  in  captivity  to  engage  in  the  industry  of 
raising  Foxes  for  breeding  purposes,  but  they  jealously 
and  successfully  guarded  their  secret  until  1910.  Up  to 
that  time,  with  the  exception  of  some  light  Silvers  sent  to 
distant  places,  no  live  Foxes  had  been  sold  by  them.  The 
surplus  stock  was  always  killed  and  the  pelts  marketed 
in  London.  A  dark  silver  pelt  sold  in  1901  brought  £580 
($2,718)   at  a  London  auction  and  in  1910  the  prices  of 


Fur  Farming.  33 

£540  and  £480  were  received  for  two  skins,  these  being- 
the  highest  prices  ever  paid  for  Silver  Fox  skins. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  about  eighty  ranches  on 
Prince  Edward  Island,  stocked  with  about  two  hundred 
fine  dark  Silver  Foxes,  about  three  hundred  Silver  Greys^ 
and  something  like  four  hundred  very  light  Silver,  Crossed 
and  Red  Foxes.  The  total  skin  value  of  these  animals  is 
about  five  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars,  and  for 
breeding  stock  they  are  worth  at  least  three  times  that 
amount;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  industry  could  not 
be  purchased  outright  for  three  million  dollars  today. 

The  ranchers  who  obtain  the  best  results  have  only 
descendents  of  the  stock  originally  caught  on  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island.  All  the  high  priced  pelts  that  have  been 
referred  to  were  from  Foxes  of  this  strain.  If  an  ordinary 
Red  Fox  of  Prince  Edward  Island  is  bred  to  a  black,  and 
the  resulting  young  are  bred  to  a  black  for  four  or  five 
generations,  a  good  Silver  Fox  will  result.  The  first  cross 
produces  what  is  designated  a  ''Cross"  or  ''Patched" 
Fox,  the  next  mating  produces  a  cross  of  a  better  quality 
with  hardly  any  reddish  tinge  in  the  hair,  and  with  silver 
patches  on  the  back.  The  third  mating  w^ll  produce  a 
light  Silver  Fox  worth  probably  five  hundred  dollars,  and 
the  result  of  the  fourth  mating  will  be  a  Dark  Silver  worth 
upwards  of  one  thousand  dollars.  Many  farmers  of  small 
means  thus  breed  up  their  stock  by  the  use  of  only  one 
high  priced  animal. 

Where  indiscriminate  crossing  of  the  colors  takes  place 
under  natural  conditions  Foxes  occur  in  about  the  fol- 
lowing proportion,  and  pelts  bring  the  trapper  or  breeder 
approximately  the  prices  named :  One  hundred  thousand 
Red  Foxes  valued  at  five  dollars  each ;  ten  thousand  Cross 
Foxes  valued  at  fifteen  dollars  each;  one  thousand  light 
Silver  Foxes  valued  at  two  hundred  dollars  each,  one  hun- 
dred dark  Silver  Foxes  valued  at  a  thousand  dollars  each. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  price  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  num- 
ber produced.  Scarcity  may  influence  the  present  price 
of  dark  Silver  Foxes,  but  there  is  no  question  of  the  great 
intrinsic  value  of  their  pelts.  They  are  marvels  of  rich- 
ness and  beauty,  and  even  if  produced  in  as  great  numbers 
as  the  red  ones  would  still  be  many  times  their  value. 
The  price  of  dark  Silver  Foxes  has  always  been  high,  and 


34  Fur  Farming. 

always  will  be  because  that  fur  will  be  as  popular  with 
royalty  in  the  future  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  and  the 
existing  demand  Avill  be  increased  rather  than  diminished. 
The  enormous  decrease  in  many  costly  furs,  and  the  vastly 
increased  number  of  people  demanding  them,  have  brought 
about  a  situation  very  encouraging  for  the  domestication 
of  many  animals,  because  of  the  great  profits  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  industry. 

There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  possibilities  of  "fur 
farming"  when  carried  on  by  competent  individuals. 
The  reports  show  that  the  Silver  Fox  industrj^  will  bring 
to  the  ranchers  on  Prince  Edward  Island  over  six  million 
dollars  in  1913,  and  that  orders  have  been  placed  there 
for  a  large  number  of  pairs  of  a  particular  breed  at  an 
average  price  of  ten  thousand  dollars  per  pair.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  hundreds  of  private  partnerships  w^ith  an  ag- 
gregate capital  of  one  million  five  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars, there  are  over  fifty  registered  companies  with  a  total 
investment  of  upwards  of  four  million  and  a  half;  every- 
one of  any  importance  on  the  island  seems  to  be  interested 
in  this  enterprise  which  is  developing  more  millionaires 
to  the  square  mile  on  Prince  Edward  Island  than  are  to 
be  found  in  any  province  in  Canada. 

The  pioneer  "Fox  Farmer"  on  the  island  was  Hon.  Chas. 
Dalton,  a  farmer  of  Irish  descent,  who  after  many  experi- 
ments and  as  many  failures  finally  succeeded  with  the 
help  of  his  partner  Mr.  R.  T.  Oulton  in  raising  near  Al- 
berton  the  first  breed  of  Foxes  reared  in  captivity.  This 
was  twenty  years  ago,  and  as  before  stated  up  to  1910 
the  business  was  confined  to  the  owners  of  the  Dalton- 
Oulton  ranch,  Mr.  Robert  Tuplin,  Mr.  Frank  Tuplin,  Mr. 
Harry  Lewis  and  a  few  others  who  were  in  the  secret ;  and 
even  now  all  the  stock  used  on  the  many  farms  being 
operated  on  the  island  comes  from  the  Dalton  and  Oulton 
original  breed. 

The  Russian  Government  and  the  New  Zealand  authori- 
ties gave  an  impetus  to  the  industry  when  they  sent  ex- 
perts to  investigate,  and  upon  their  report  invested  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  in  young  stock.  Since  that  time 
existing  ranches  have  had  more  orders  than  they  can  fill, 
even  at  a  price  of  twelve  thousand  five  hundred  dollars 
for  a  pair  of  Silver  Black  Foxes. 


Fur  Farming.  35 

There  need  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  permanency  of  the 
''fur  farming"  industry,  for  when  the  demand  for  one 
species  slackens  there  will  be  an  increased  market  for 
other  animals;  and  there  will  always  be  a  profitable  sale 
for  valuable  skins,  even  when  there  is  no  call  for  animals 
themselves  for  breeding  purposes. 

If  an  animal  as  sensitive  as  the  Fox  can  be  successfully 
reared  in  captivity,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  any  species  of 
wild  life  can  be  propagated  on  fur  farms  established  under 
proper  conditions. 

The  Kussian  Sable  is  nearly  as  valuable  as  the  dark 
Silver  Fox,  coats  of  this  fur  often  costing  as  high  as 
twenty-five  or  thirty  thousand  dollars  and  upward.  The 
writer  years  ago  sold  tAvo  Black  Fox  skins  for  forty-five 
hundred  dollars,  and  a  set  of  natural  Black  Fox  fur  worn 
at  the  last  New  York  Horse  Show  is  said  to  have  cost 
the  owner  sixteen  thousand  dollars,  although  only  four 
skins  were  used  in  its  manufacture.  The  writers  referred 
to  at  the  beginning  of  this  article  justly  claim  that  unless 
immediate  steps  are  taken  to  increase  the  number  of  Foxes, 
Siberian  and  other  Martens,  Otter,  Beaver  and  Mink  and 
some  of  the  other  valuable  fur-bearing  animals  which  are 
capable  of  being  domesticated;  none  but  the  very  rich  will 
be  able  to  buy  furs.  The  fact  that  the  Silver  Fox  has  been 
successfully  domesticated  by  the  efforts  of  a  few  men  with- 
out any  encouragement  of  the  government,  and  with  no 
financial  backing  except  meager  incomes  from  farming 
and  trapping,  should  inspire  extensive  governmental  ex- 
periments, to  determine  the  feasibility  of  extending  the 
number  of  domesticated  fur  producing  animals.  With  an 
estimated  yearly  expenditure  of  from  two  to  three  hun- 
dred million  dollars  for  the  skins  of  American  reared  ani- 
mals alone,  "why  are  the  woods  being  depleted  of  our 
handsome  wild  animals  by  such  a  cruel  method  as  trap- 
ping? Why  are  not  the  trappers  converted  into  animal 
husbandman  1 ' ' 

A  Fox  ranch  may  be  from  half  an  acre  to  five  acres  in 
extent,  and  should  be  enclosed  with  a  stockade  fence  ten 
feet  high  with  an  inner  wire  fence  of  the  same  height,  and 
so  constructed  that  the  Foxes  cannot  escape  by  burrowing 
underneath  or  climbing  over  the  top.  The  kennels  on  the 
inside — one   for  each  pair — should  be  large   and  roomy, 


36  Fur  Farming.  * 

and  contain  dens  where  the  Foxes  can  sleep  and  make 
their  nests. 

Originally  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  pair  of  Foxes  on 
Prince  Edward  Island  did  not  exceed  seven  dollars  a  year, 
but  with  the  growth  of  the  industry  the  price  of  food  stuffs 
has  advanced,  so  that  the  cost  now  is  about  twenty-five 
dollars  per  annum. 

SKUNK  RAISING. 

The  Skunk  has  received  more  consideration  from  fur 
farmers  than  any  other  animal,  and  where  proper  care  and 
judgment  have  been  exercised  skunk  raising  has  always 
proved  a  profitable  investment  for  the  time  and  money  de- 
voted to  it.  The  few  failures  that  have  resulted  have 
been  among  the  larger  operators,  whose  knowledge  of  the 
nature  and  habits  of  the  animal,  and  the  requirements  of 
the  industry,  were  theoretical  rather  than  experimental. 
The  people  w^ho  have  started  in  on  a  small  scale  were  for 
the  most  part  either  trappers  or  others  who  had  enjoyed 
opportunities  to  study  the  animals  and  their  wants,  and 
were  in  a  position  to  give  to  the  venture  that  personal  and 
comprehensive  attention  upon  which  the  success  of  every 
enterprise  depends.  This  does  not  mean  that  those  with- 
out practical  experience  with  the  animals  must  necessarily 
make  a  failure  of  fur  farming.  The  point  we  wish  to  em- 
phasize is,  that  the  successful  breeders  of  fur  bearing  ani- 
mals are  those  who  make  a  special  study  of  the  species  they 
are  propagating,  and  who  take  the  same  interest  in  them 
that  they  would  in  any  strain  of  domestic  cattle  they  were 
trying  to  develope.  The  men  who  fail  in  fur  farming  are 
those  who  neglect  to  study  the  habits  of  the  animals,  and 
consequently  know  nothing  about  caring  for  them  when  in 
captivity.  In  Silver  Fox  farming,  where  a  pair  of  breed- 
ing Foxes  cost  from  six  to  twelve  thousand  dollars,  capital 
as  well  as  knowledge  is  required  to  begin  business  unless 
the  breeder  is  in  position  to  capture  his  own  stock;  but  in 
Skunk-raising,  where  a  man  can  start  with  a  half  dozen 
males  and  a  couple  of  dozen  females  at  an  expense  of  a  few 
hundred  dollars,  the  only  essential  element  of  success  is 
knowledge  and  faithful  work. 

Skunks  breed  well  in  captivity  and  will  eat  almost  any 
kind  of  food  from  carrion  down  to  mice  and  insects ;  they 


Fur  Farming.  37 

are  also  partial  to  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  melons  and  fruit. 
In  captivity  they  should  be  fed  at  regular  intervals,  and 
given  as  far  as  possible  a  mixed  diet — part  animal  and 
part  vegetable.  Bread  and  milk  should  be  fed  them  oc- 
casionally, and  if  the  farm  is  near  a  slaughter  house  the 
offal  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  carrion.  As  it  is 
lack  of  food  that  causes  the  older  animals  to  eat  their 
young,  breeders  should  see  to  it  that  they  have  plenty  of 
the  right  kind  of  food  during  the  spring  and  summer  sea- 
sons, and  thus  prevent  one  of  the  great  causes  of  loss. 

Skunks  mate  in  February  or  early  in  March,  the  period 
of  gestation  is  about  nine  weeks,  and  the  young  are  usu- 
ally produced  in  May,  though  occasionally  some  are  born 
in  April.  The  number  of  young  to  a  litter  is  from  four  to 
ten,  and  sometimes  even  more.  The  interior  of  the  en- 
closure should  be  so  constructed  that  there  will  be  separ- 
ate compartments  for  the  males,  and  the  females  and  their 
young,  the  larger  space  being  given  to  the  latter.  Some 
breeders  have  small  yards  to  accommodate  two  or  three 
families  after  the  young  are  born,  but  this  is  not  necessary, 
the  main  object  being  to  keep  the  males  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  family  until  the  young  are  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves.  Of  course  when  the  number  of  animals  in- 
creases, it  is  advisable  to  have  separate  breeding  yards 
large  enough  for  say  a  dozen  females. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  males 
for  breeding  purposes.  Only  large  healthy  animals  of  good 
color  should  be  used,  the  rest  of  the  males  being  killed  and 
their  skins  marketed.  One  male  Skunk  will  serve  ten 
females,  and  should  be  left  in  their  company  several  days. 
To  make  sure  of  results  another  male  should  be  installed 
for  a  few  days  after  the  first  has  been  removed,  but  two 
males  should  never  be  allowed  with  a  party  of  females  at 
the  same  time  or  a  fight  will  ensue.  Fresh  breeding  stock 
should  be  secured  each  year  from  other  localities,  as  the 
results  will  be  disastrous  if  related  animals  are  allowed 
to  inbreed  for  a  few  years.  The  animals  do  not  always 
breed  strictly  to  color,  but  the  white  markings  can  be  re- 
duced and  the  stock  improved  by  selected  breeding.  A 
full  black  mated  with  a  long  stripe  should  produce  shorter 
stripe  animals,  and  these  if  mated  with  full  blacks  should 
give  still  better  results.     The  color  of  Skunks  can  be  bred 


38  Fur  Farming. 

up  as  well  as  that  of  the  Foxes.  The  best  animals  should 
always  be  kept  for  breeding  purposes.  The  fur  farmer  who 
kills  off  his  finest  specimens  to  compete  for  the  prizes  of- 
fered for  the  finest  skins  makes  a  fatal  mistake.  It  is  the 
man  who  always  breeds  up  to  the  best  who  has  the  finest 
average  skins  to  market. 

As  Skunks  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
Skunk  farms  can  be  operated  successfully  anywhere  that 
the  climate  is  cold  enough  in  winter  to  cause  the  growth 
of  thick  soft  fur,  but  up  to  the  present  time  this  industry 
has  been  largely  confined  to  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  A. 
R.  Harding  in  his  book  on  Fur  Farming,  in  writing  about 
enclosures,  says : 

''There  should  be  a  spring  on,  or  a  small  stream  crossing 
the  ground  to  be  inclosed,  but  at  the  same  time  the  ground 
must  not  be  wet ;  in  fact,  it  should  be  of  rather  dry  nature 
so  that  there  will  not  be  too  much  dampness  in  the  dens. 
There  should  be  banks  of  earth  for  the  animals  to  den  in, 
and  the  ground  should  have  a  gradual  slope  so  that  it  will 
drain  readily.  If  it  is  of  a  sandy  nature  it  will  be  all  the 
better.  Some  who  have  tried  Skunk  farming  have  located 
the  yards  on  the  shore  of  a  small  lake  or  pond  and  have 
included  a  portion  of  the  pond  in  the  enclosure.  This  is 
a  good  idea  and  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  extend  the 
fence  very  deep  into  the  water,  as  the  Skunk  is  not  a 
water  animal  and  will  not  dive  under;  where  the  fence 
crosses  a  stream  of  running  water  however  the  fence 
should  reach  to  the  bed  of  the  stream  as  the  water  will 
fall  considerably  during  dry  weather." 

"The  enclosures  should  be  large.  When  the  animals 
are  enclosed  in  small  yards  or  pens  they  become  infested 
with  fleas,  ticks,  etc.,  and  they  do  not  thrive.  Small 
enclosures  will  answer  for  a  short  time,  but  as  soon  as 
possible  the  Skunks  should  be  placed  in  a  large  roomy  yard. 
For  fencing  material  galvanized  wire  netting  of  one-inch 
mesh  is  advised,  as  the  young  animals  will  escape  through 
a  two-inch  mesh.  The  fence  should  be  seven  feet  in  height. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  the  Skunk  will  not  escape  over 
a  four-foot  fence,  but  there  is  danger  in  winter  from  drift- 
ing snow,  and  dogs  and  other  animals  must  be  kept  out 
at  all  times,  and  therefore  the  fence  should  be  of  a  height 
mentioned  and  it  must  be  turned  in  at  the  top  or  a  sheet 


Fur  Farming.  39 

of  tin  placed  along  the  edge  to  prevent  the  animals  from 
climbing  out." 

''In  each  compartment  ^  number  of  dens  should  be 
made  by  digging  a  trench  and  covering  afterwards.  AVhile 
the  animals  will  dig  dens  if  necessary,  they  prefer,  even 
while  in  a  wild  state,  to  use  dens  already  made.  Boxes, 
barrels  or  pens  with  board  floors  should  not  be  used. 
Some  of  the  successful  breeders  claim  that  this  has  a  ten- 
dency to  cause  a  thick  pelt  and  thin  fur  and  say  that  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  they  have  natural  dens  in  the 
ground.  The  dens  should  be  made  quite  deep  so  that 
there  will  be  no  danger  from  frost  in  winter." 

MINK  RAISING. 

It  is  hardly  possible  to  tame  the  adult  wild  Mink,  but 
the  young  submit  to  handling  and  can  be  easily  domes- 
ticated. Mr.  Boughton  says  that  the  time  to  secure  them 
is  in  May  or  June  when  they  begin  to  run  with  their  dams 
and  can  easily  be  tracked  to  their  nests  and  dug  out  or 
taken  as  they  leave  the  hole.  Owners  of  Mink  breeding 
stock  ask  very  high  prices,  but  in  this  w^ay  a  start  can  be 
made  in  Mink  raising  at  a  trifling  expense. 

Minks  are  by  nature  solitary,  wandering  animals,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  rear  them  successfully  in  captivity  if 
large  numbers  are  kept  together,  so  their  enclosure  should 
be  a  large  one,  and  so  arranged  that  the  male  and  female 
can  be  together  frequently  from  the  middle  of  February 
to  the  middle  of  March,  but  kept  separate  at  all  other 
times. 

The  season  for  mating  is  the  first  two  weeks  in  March, 
and  the  young  are  born  six  weeks  later,  four  to  six  to  the 
litter.  The  young  are  blind  five  or  six  weeks,  and  are 
weaned  when  from  eight  to  ten  weeks  old.  When  four 
weeks  old  the  mother  begins  to  feed  them  meat  and  con- 
tinues to  supply  them  with  food  until  they  are  about 
four  months  old.  The  young  soon  separate  when  left  to 
shift  for  themselves  and  do  not  pair,  the  male  being  a 
rover.  Minks  are  very  cleanly,  and  as  soon  as  the  nest  is 
foul  the  mother  moves  the  young  to  another  nest. 

Minks  are  strictly  carnivorous  animals  and  always  pre- 
fer fresh  food,  and  therefore  are  not  so  easy  to  supply 
with  food  as  the  Skunk  or  Muskrat;  but  as  they  are  fond 


40  Fur  Farming. 

of  fish  feeding  will  be  comparatively  easy  if  the  enclosure 
is  near  a  place  where  fish  can  be  obtained. 

When  the  animals  become  tame  enough,  dens  should  be 
provided  for  them  similar  to  those  used  in  their  wild  state ; 
these  can  be  made  by  burying  tile  in  the  ground,  or  by 
making  other  artificial  burrows.  A  few  hollow  logs 
placed  in  the  enclosure  will  be  enjoyed  by  the  animals. 

If  properly  watered  and  fed,  and  given  houses  like 
those  they  were  accustomed  to  in  their  natural  state,  there 
need  be  no  fear  that  Minks  will  not  fur  properly  in  cap- 
tivity; but  as  in  the  case  of  stock,  and  all  species  of  fur- 
bearing  animals,  it  will  not  be  the  man  who  goes  into  Mink 
raising  only  to  secure  a  fortune  who  will  obtain  the  best 
results,  but  the  breeder  who  loves  the  animals  and  studies 
their  needs  and  provides  for  their  comfort. 

Space  will  not  permit  us  to  describe  as  fully  as  we  wish 

some  of  the  Mink  enclosures  the  writer  has  seen,  but  in 

the   near  future   he   hopes   to   publish   a   comprehensive 

volume  upon  the  subject  of  fur-farming  which  will  deal 

^  fully  with  this  interesting  subject. 


41 


THE  FURRIERS. 

At  the  present  time  the  dividing  lines  between  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  the  industry  are  not  drawn  as  closely  as 
in  the  early  days.  Even  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has 
stores  for  the  sale  of  manufactured  furs,  and  some  of  the 
large  manufacturers  have  their  own  trading  posts  and 
supply  stations  in  the  remote  regions  and  are  Skin  Dealers 
as  well  as  Furriers. 

Fifty  years  ago,  the  business  of  selling  manufactured 
furs  in  America  w^as  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  fur 
manufacturers  themselves,  and  the  wholesale  and  retail 
hatters  most  of  whom  had  a  good  general  knowledge  of  fur 
values  and  qualities. 

About  1870,  some  of  the  New  York  manufacturers,  in 
an  effort  to  increase  the  outlet  for  their  products,  induced 
some  of  the  wholesale  dry-goods  houses  and  larger 
department  stores  to  engage  in  the  business  of  selling 
furs;  and  ever  since  that  time  there  has  been  a  steady 
rush  of  people,  in  all  lines  of  business,  to  get  a  share  of 
a  trade  which  they  evidently  believed  still  yielded  to 
those  engaged  in  it  as  large  a  percentage  of  profit,  as 
was  secured  by  the  Traders  who  two  centuries;  ago  swapped 
beads  and  jack  knives  for  skins  with  the  unsophisticated 
savages. 

Many  to  their  sorrow  soon  discovered  that  if  honestly  con- 
ducted the  fur  business,  like  any  other  commercial  pur- 
suit, pays  the  dealer  only  a  fair  margin ;  and  that  success 
there  as  elsewhere  depends  upon  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  business.  Where  one  has  dropped  out  however 
a  poorer  and  wdser  man,  two  have  always  been  waiting 
for  a  chance  to  risk  the  money  gained  in  pursuits  with 
the  possibilities  of  which  they  were  familiar,  in  an  uncer- 
tain experiment  along  lines  of  endeavor  of  the  inner 
workings  of  which  they  knew  little  or  nothing.  The 
natural  result  is  that  where  two  generations  ago  there 
were  a  dozen  responsible  Fur  ^lerchants,  there  are  today 
thousands  of  dealers  handling  furs  with  varying 
degrees  of  success;  and  there  has  been  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  number  of  so-called  fur  ''factories." 


42  The  Furriers. 

Take  Greater  New  York  as  an  illustration.  In  1870, 
the  fur  business  there  was  conducted  along  legitimate 
lines  b}^  John  Ruszits,  D.  Greenfield,  James  Brodie,  A. 
Jacobson  and  Brother,  L.  Zechiel,  G.  Lowerre,  Mischo  and 
Mueller,  Frederick  Booss,  C.  G.  Gunther,  Geo.  C. 
Treadwell,  H.  M.  Silverman,  M.  Konvalinka,  Charles 
Herpich,  Philip  Weinberg,  Nichols,  Burtnett  and  Co., 
Harris  and  Russak,  Duncan,  Ash  and  Jaeckle,  Balch  and 
Price,  and  a  few  other  equally  well  known  furriers. 

Today  the  number  of  fur  manufacturers,  of  differing 
degrees  of  responsibility,  who  are  competing  for  trade 
in  New  York  City  runs  way  up  into  the  thousands. 
Many  of  them  are  worthy  successors  of  the  men  who 
in  earlier  days  made  New  York  the  fur  market  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere;  but  w^hether  on  the  whole  the 
change  from  the  old  conditions  to  the  new  has  been  a 
benefit  to  the  trade,  or  the  public,  is  a  question  for  serious 
consideration. 

We  all  believe  in  the  day  of  small  things,  and  in  the 
fur  business  as  in  other  lines  of  endeavor  some  of  the 
greatest  successes  have  resulted  from  the  smallest  begin- 
nings; but  we  can  have  too  much  of  even  a  good  thing, 
and  what  seems  to  be  needed  just  now  in  the  fur  indus- 
try is  more  concentration,  rather  than  a  further  division 
of  interests. 

The  small  dealer  who  thoroughly  understands  the 
details  of  the  business  in  which  he  is  engaged,  and  who 
has  a  proper  sense  of  responsibility,  and  an  ambition 
to  establish  a  reputation  for  honorable  competition  and 
fair  dealing  with  customers,  is  always  an  influence  for 
good  in  the  commercial  life  of  his  community;  but  the 
class  who  rush  into  any  line  of  business  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  value  of  the  goods  they  offer  for  sale, 
and  with  no  other  object  than  to  divert  to  themselves 
a  share  of  some  one  else's  profits,  demoralize  the  trade 
into  which  they  inject  themselves;  and  too  often,  when 
they  find  they  cannot  make  the  expected  enormous  pro- 
fits by  the  sale  of  legitimate  goods,  rob  the  public  by 
misrepresentation,  and  the  substitution  of  inferior  grades. 

Many  of  the  people  selling  furs  today  are  neither  Fur 
Traders,  Furriers,  nor  Skin  Dealers  as  the  men  who  sup- 
ply the  manufacturers  with  dressed    skins    are    called. 


The  Furriers.  43 

They  are  simply  Dealers  in  Fur  who  have  no  experience 
in  manufacturing  or  technical  knowledge  of  the  value  or 
quality  of  skins.  They  handle  only  the  products  of  other 
makers,  and  are  obliged  to  depend  entirely  upon  the 
representations  of  the  manufacturers  who  supply  them 
with  goods.  The  Furrier  is  the  man  upon  whom  the  fur 
buying  public  must  depend  for  a  square  deal,  whether  they 
purchase  from  him  direct  or  from  one  of  the  dealers  he 
supplies. 

The  necessity  of  considering  the  responsibility  of  the 
dealer  when  purchasing  furs  must  be  apparent  to  all  who 
remember  what  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  what  may 
be  termed  artificial  products.  The  common  and  cheaper 
furs  are  often  so  prepared  as  to  resemble  rarer  and 
costlier  articles.  The  skill  with  which  piecing  is  done  is 
somewhat  marvelous.  All  the  clippings  and  cuttings  of 
furs  have  their  uses,  and  pass  into  different  hands  for 
various  purposes.  The  life  of  a  fur  also  depends  largely 
upon  the  method  of  dressing  and  the  quality  of  the  dye 
used  in  coloring.  The  average  purchaser  cannot  possibly 
have  the  knowledge  that  will  protect  him  from  being 
imposed  upon  by  unscrupulous  dealers.  There  are  how- 
ever so  many  responsible  Furriers  and  Fur  Dealers 
large  and  small,  that  no  one  except  those  who  are  look- 
ing for  "something  for  nothing"  need  ever  be  the  victim 
of  fraud  or  deception. 

The  story  of  the  Furriers  is  not  so  full  of  dramatic 
interest  as  the  history  of  the  Fur  Traders,  but  they  are 
**the  men  behind  the  guns"  without  whose  prosaic  efforts 
to  make  furs  fashionable,  and  to  stimulate  the  demand 
at  various  times  for  different  species  by  the  creation  of 
new  styles,  peltries  never  would  have  become  valuable 
enough  to  cause  the  Fur  Traders  to  leave  their  homes  and 
risk  their  lives  in  the  pursuit  of  their  calling. 

To  trace  the  origin  of  the  trade  in  manufactured  furs, 
we  would  have  to  go  back,  almost,  to  the  origin  of  man 
himself.  The  writer  finds  as  a  matter  of  record  that  in 
1251,  in  the  account  of  the  Master  of  Robes  to  Louis 
IX  of  France,  there  is  a  charge  for  an  ermine  lining  for 
a  surcoat ;  in  which  three  hundred  and  forty  ermines  were 
used  for  the  body  of  the  garment,  sixty  for  the  sleeves  and 
waist  band,  and  336  for  the  frock.    "tVe  might  mention,  in 


44  The  Furriers. 

passing,  that  the  man  who  made  that  coat  was  not  by  any 
means  the  first  furrier;  there  were  many  others  before 
him.  The  heraldic  furs  of  that  age  were  the  sable,  the 
ermine,  the  vair  or  blue  squirrel,  and  the  grison  or  badger, 
which  are  as  popular  today  as  they  were  then;  but  the 
furriers  of  that  time  had  probably  never  heard  of  many 
of  the  animals  whose  skins  are  being  used  today,  and 
would  be  as  much  surprised  at  the  names  under  which 
some  of  the  animals  with  which  they  w^ere  familiar  are 
being  sold,  as  they  would  be  startled  at  the  business 
methods  of  the  present  generation. 

No  one  would  care  to  go  back  to  the  time  when  farmers 
swapped  pumpkins  over  the  fence,  and  the  storekeeper's 
principal  business  was  trading  merchandise  with  those 
who  were  handling  other  lines  of  goods.  Every  reliable 
furrier,  however,  is  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  a 
judicious  regulation  of  credits,  and  the  stringent  enforce- 
ment of  laws  against  false  representations,  will  prevent 
the  dishonest  competition  that  for  years  has  demoralized 
an  industry  whose  history  for  centuries  has  been  a  record 
of  great  and  honorable  achievements. 

In  every  line  of  industry  standards  will  continue  to  be 
lowered,  and  honest  merchants  will  be  at  a  disadvantage, 
until  fake  advertising  is  made  a  states  prison  offense. 
The  man  who  secures  a  hundred  dollars  in  cash  by  strain- 
ing the  truth  is  a  criminal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law,  but  the 
dealer  who,  by  direct  lies  as  to  the  quality  of  his  wares, 
obtains  two  hundred  dollars  for  fifty  dollars  worth  of 
merchandise  is  a  shrewd  business  man,  in  the  opinion  of 
everybody,  except  the  few  who  in  some  way  find  out  that 
they  have  been  imposed  on.  The  reputable  furrier  is  the 
greatest  sufferer  from  this  evil,  because  the  purchasing 
public  know  less  about  furs  than  they  do  about  other 
articles  of  merchandise,  and  a  great  many  of  the  people 
will  buy  any  old  thing,  if  they  can  be  persuaded  that  they 
are  getting  it  for  less  than  it  is  worth. 


45 


FUR  MARKETS. 

In  the  early  days,  St.  Louis  was  the  fur  market  of  the 
United  States,  as  it  was  the  starting  point  of  all  the  expe- 
ditions to  the  Far  West,  and  the  place  where  the  skins 
received  from  the  Pacific  Coast  and  the  interior  trading 
stations  along  the  old  overland  route,  were  either  offered 
for  sale  or  reshipped  to  New  York  and  Boston.  Naturally 
all  the  large  fur  companies  had  headquarters  there,  and 
it  was  the  Mecca  alike  of  the  trappers  and  fur  traders  who 
had  peltries  to  dispose  of,  and  the  furriers  who  were  look- 
ing for  supplies.  For  a  number  of  years,  however.  New 
York,  owing  to  the  advantages  it  enjoys  as  the  commercial 
center  of  the  country  and  the  principal  port  of  entry  for 
foreign  merchandise,  has  been  the  place  to  which  manufac- 
turers and  fur  dealers  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
have  gone  for  their  skins,  and  manufactured  furs.  It  was, 
therefore  somewiiat  of  a  surprise  when  it  was  announced, 
after  the  government  had  taken  control  of  the  fur  industry 
on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  that  the  first  annual  sale  of  seal 
and  fox  skins  by  the  representatives  of  the  government 
would  be  held  at  St.  Louis  on  December  16th,  1913. 

Heretofore,  the  skins  of  these  animals  were  sent  by  the 
leasees  of  the  islands  to  London,  to  be  sold  at  auction ;  and 
the  December  sales  there  attracted  buyers  from  all  parts 
of  this  country,  Europe  and  Canada ;  so  the  action  of  the 
authorities  in  designating  St.  Louis  as  the  place  for  the 
government  fur  sales  will  do  much  to  restore  that  city  to 
its  former  important  position  in  the  fur  trade,  although 
the  facts  do  not  warrant  the  statement  made  by  the  Asso- 
ciated Press  that  the  auction  was  awarded  to  St.  Louis,  bc"- 
cause  it  was  the  largest  fur  market  in  the  United  States. 

Tens  of  thousands  of  Russian  sables,  hundreds  of  thous- 
ands of  ermines,  millions  of  squirrels  and  large  quantities 
of  other  Russian  skins  are  sold  annually  at  the  fairs  held 
in  Irbit  and  Nijni  Novgorod,  but  Moscow  is  the  fur  center 
of  Russia,  where  a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply  of 
Russian  Squirrels^  Ermines,  Persians,  Ponies,  Marmots  and 
Foxes  are  originally  marketed. 


46  Fur  Markets. 

The  Chinese  traders  are  the  principal  purchasers  at  the 
fair  held  annually  at  Kratka  on  the  Chinese  border;  but 
most  of  the  Dog  skins  and  mats,  Goat  skins  and  rugs,  Thibet 
lamb  skins  and  crosses,  and  other  Chinese  furs,  are  exported 
direct  from  Harbin,  Mukden,  Hong  Kong,  Shanghai,  Peking^ 
Tientsen  and  the  other  points  where  they  are  collected. 

Leipzig  is  an  important  fur  center,  and  the  price  of 
Astrachan  and  Persian  lamb  skins  is  largely  determined  at 
the  sales  held  at  the  fair  which  opens  there  each  year  the 
first  Monday  after  Easter. 

Fairs  are  also  held  in  Leipzig  at  New  Year's  and  in  Sep- 
tember, but  the  chief  mart  for  the  sale  of  furs  is  the 
Easter  fair  which  lasts  for  two  weeks  from  jtlhe  first 
Monday  after  Easter,  and  is  attended  by  merchants  from 
all  the  large  fur  centers  in  the  world.  Some  American 
furs  are  sold  at  these  fairs,  but  the  principal  offerings 
are  Cats,  Squirrels,  Persian  Lambs  and  other  Asiatic 
furs. 

The  Irbit  Fair  on  the  Siberian  side  of  the  boundary 
line  between  the  two  continents,  is  the  mart  for  Russian 
furs  like  Squirrel,  Ermine,  Fox,  Beaver,  Kolinsky,  Rus- 
sian Fitch,  Sables,  etc.  The  Nijni  fair  is  more  impor- 
tant than  the  preceding,  and  large  quantities  of  Persian^ 
Shiraz  and  Astrachan  lambs,  Squirrel  skins.  Ermine, 
Bear,  Mongolian  Goat,  White  Fox,  Wolf  and  Dog  Skins 
are  sold  there. 

The  great  fur  events  of  the  year  however  are  the  sales 
held  in  January,  March,  June  and  October  of  each  year  in 
the  city  of  London.  The  January  offerings  often  consist 
principally  of  muskrats,  beavers  and  opossums.  It  is  at  the 
March  sales  that  the  choicest  collection  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  and  the  finest  consignments  shipped  to  C.  M. 
Lampson  and  Company  and  other  London '  brokers  are 
sold  at  auction  to  bidders  from  all  garts  of  the  world.  Com- 
paratively few  buyers  attend  the  June  and  October  sales,, 
when  the  offerings  consist  of  the  less  desirable  late  catches 
and  of  unsold  lots  remaining  from  the  former  sales.  The 
reports  of  the  sales  made  by  C.  M.  Lampson  &  Company, 
A.  &  W.  Nesbitt,  Ltd.,  Anning  &  Cobb,  Flack  Chandler, 
Goad,  Rigg  and  Co.,  Culverwell,  Brooks  and  Cotton,. 
Dyster  Haider,  Henry  Kiver,  Barker  and  Co.,  Thorp  and 
Welby  and  Frederick  Huth  &  Co.,  and  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Co.  in  1913,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the 
different  London  sales  at  the  present  time. 


47 


DRESSING,  DYEING  AND  IMPROVING. 

At  one  time  the  Red  Indian  was  undoubtedly  the  best 
dresser  of  the  skins  of  the  Buffalo  and  other  American 
animals,  and  the  present  art  of  tanning  was  largely  bor- 
rowed from  the  savages.  The  skins  are  first  placed  in  an 
alkali  bath,  and  when  the  pelt  has  become  soft  they  are 
taken  out  and  tubbed;  after  this  they  are  shaved  by 
passing  them  over  a  knife  placed  in  an  upright  position. 
Next  they  are  buttered  and  put  into  a  tub  of  sawdust,  where 
they  are  tread  by  half-naked  men  until  the  leather  has 
become  soft  and  supple  from  the  heat  of  the  bodies  of  the 
workmen.  The  skins  are  then  taken  out  and  cleaned  and 
finished.  Generally  speaking  American  skin  dressers  are 
the  best  in  the  world,  but  in  the  dressing  of  squirrel  skins 
the  dressers  of  Weissenfels,  in  Saxony,  surpass  all  others. 
This  success  is  probably  largely  due  to  the  nature  of 
clay  and  salt  deposits  available  near  the  towm,  but  how- 
ever this  may  be,  nearly  the  whole  community  of  Weissen- 
fels thrives  upon  this  one  industry,  in  which  hundreds  of 
men  are  employed  to  dress  the  skins,  which  are  afterwards 
sorted,  matched,  and  sewed  by  thousands  of  women  and 
children  into  lining  plates,  that  are  acknowledged  the  world 
over  as  being  vastly  superior  to  the  products  of  their  chief 
competitors  in  this  branch — the  Russians. 

P.  L.  Simmonds,  writing  on  this  subject,  says: 
''The  ancients  detached  the  flesh  from  the  skins  with 
sharpened  stones  and  dried  them  in  the  sun ;  after  which 
they  were,  energetically  rubbed  with  oil  and  grease 
extracted  from  the  intestines  of  the  slaughtered  animals, 
and  a  polish  was  added  to  the  skins  by  rubbing  them  with 
porous  stones.  The  hides  of  bullocks,  horses  and  other 
large  animals  were  used  to  make  the  tents  which  sheltered 
the  early  Patriarchs,  and  the  skins  of  the  leopards,  tigers 
and  smaller  animals  supplied  the  wearing  apparel  with 
which  they  were  able  to  glorify  themselves  before  their  fel- 
lowmen. 

At  a  later  period  the  adhering  particles  of  flesh  remain- 
ing on  the  skin  when  it  was  wrenched  from  the  animal 
were  removed  with  bone,,  stone  and  iron  instruments,  and 


48  Dressing  and  Improving. 

the  skins  were  washed  so  as  to  open  the  pores  and 
cleanse  them  from  dust  and  dirt.  After  this  was  done  they 
were  exposed  to  the  frost.  Later  still  it  was  discovered 
that  the  skins  w^ould  be  greatly  improved  by  plunging 
them  into  water  containing  a  solution  of  alum,  and  then 
putting  them  into  vinegar.  These  baths  protected  the  skins 
from  rotting.  After  they  had  been  dried  in  the  shade  the 
skins  were  moistened  again  and  beaten,  stretched  and 
otherwise  manipulated  until  they  were  supple,  clean,  and 
free  from  disagreeable  odors.  The  Indians  had  a  way  of 
loosening  the  skin  from  the  smaller  animals  that  was 
cleaner  than  any  other  process.  They  would  puncture  the 
skin  in  two  or  three  places,  where  no  injudy  would  be 
done  by  the  cut,  and  insert  a  quill.  By  blowing  through 
the  quill  the  air  would  be  forced  betw^een  the  flesh  and  the 
skin,  which  could  then  be  stripped  off  without  a  knife. ' ' 

Catlin,  in  his  "North  American  Indians,"  said:  "The 
Indians  dress  buffalo  and  other  skins  by  leaving  them 
in  a  lye  of  water  and  ashes  until  the  hair  can  be  removed ; 
then  they  strain  them  on  a  frame,  or  upon  the  ground 
with  stakes  and  pins  driven  through  the  edges  into  the 
'earth.  After  they  have  been  in  this  position  for  several 
days  with  the  brains  of  the  buffalo  or  elk  spread  over 
them,  the  squaws  dry  and  soften  the  skin  by  scraping 
the  fleshy  side  with  a  bone  sharpened  at  the  edge  upon 
which  they  bear  the  total  weight  of  their  bodies. 

As  before  stated,  the  Germans  surpass  all  others  in 
dressing  squirrel  skins,  and  they  have  few  equals  in 
dressing  cats  and  beavers,  the  only  objection  to  their 
method  being  that  it  leaves  the  pelt  of  large  skins 
rather  thick. 

-  The  English  specialties  are  chinchilla,  marten,  sable, 
skunk  and  fox,  the  only  objection  to  their  processes 
being  that  in  cold  climates  the  moisture  in  English 
dressed  skins  is  apt  to  freeze  and  cause  them  to  become 
hard.  This  never  happens  to  Russian  dressed  skins,  but 
they  have  an  unpleasant  smell  which  it  is  hard  to  eradi- 
cate. This  is  also  true  of  the  Chinese  method,  which 
leaves  a  very  unpleasant  smelling  powder  on  the  skins,  but 
the  Chinese  are  successful  in  dressing  sea  otters  and  tigers. 


Fur  Dyeing.  49 

The  dyeing  of  fur  skins  is  an  ancient  art,  but  the  pres- 
ent generation  has  brought  it  to  such  a  state  of  perfection 
that,  in  many  cases,  no  one  but  an  expert  can  tell  when 
skins  have  been  touched  to  deepen  or  change  their  color. 
The  English  have  long  excelled  in  dyeing  seal  skins.  They 
first  use  a  mordant  of  lime;  and  then,  after  the  ground 
color  has  been  trodden  in  with  booted  feet,  a  dye  com- 
posed of  copper  dust,  antimony,  camphor,  verdigris,  and 
roasted  gall  nuts  is  applied  to  the  top  of  the  fur  with  a 
brush.  Formerly  twelve  to  fourteen  coats  of  this  dye  were 
applied,  but  at  present  the  same  results  are  obtained  with 
fewer  applications,  and  some  dyers  now  heat  the  dye  and 
dip  the  skins  into  the  mixture.  In  fact  the  art  of  dyeing 
with  the  brush  has  been  largely  superseded  by  the  dipping 
process,  especially  where  vegetable  dyes  that  will  not  injure 
the  leather  are  used.  The  Germans  are  unsurpassed  in 
dyeing  black.  Leipzig-dyed  Persian,  Astrachan  and  Ukrainer 
lamb  and  Lynx  skins  have  a  brilliancy  of  color  and 
pliability  of  pelt  that  cannot  be  found  in  others.  Whether 
this  is  due  to  the  nature  of  the  water  and  the  climate,  or 
the  ingredients  used  and  methods  employed,  is  a  disputed 
question ;  but  American  dyers  are  so  rapidly  improving  in 
seal  and  black  dyeing  that  they  will  doubtless  soon  obtain 
in  these,  as  they  have  in  so  many  other  cases,  results  equal 
to  the  best  foreign  products. 

The  art  of  imitating,  changing  and  improving  furs,  is 
carried  on  with  very  great  success.  By  means  of  certain 
operations  and  dyes,  the  leopard  skin  is  imitated ;  muskrats, 
susliks  and  marmots  are  striped  like  mink ;  wolves  are  made 
to  appear  like  foxes;  martens,  minks  and  sables  are  dark- 
ened ;  raccoons,  opossums  and  white  skunks  are  dyed  black 
or  natural  skunk  color;  silver  foxes  are  successfully  imi- 
tated by  dyeing  the  red  fox  skins  and  pointing  them  with 
badger  hairs;  off  color  white  foxes  have  the  top  hair  dyed 
so  they  look  like  the  natural  blue  foxes ;  and  this  year,  we 
even  have  bright  yellow,  sky  blue  and  pink  Belgian  hares. 

The  seals,  otters,  beavers,  conies,  muskrats,  and  a  number 
of  other  animals  have  a  soft,  thick  under  fur,  which  is  bet- 
ter adapted  for  the  purposes  of  the  furrier's  art  when  the 
long  stiff  hairs  which  form  the  top  skin  have  been  removed. 
These  skins  were  formerly  sheared,  and  later  the  long  top 
hairs  were  plucked  out  by  hand;  now  the  desired  result  is 


50  Fur  Dyeing. 

accomplished  by  shaving  a  layer  off  the  under  side  of  the 
pelt  when  these  stiff  hairs,  which  come  further  through 
the  leather  than  the  under  fur,  are  loosened  so  they  can 
easily  be  plucked  from  the  fur  side  with  blunt  knives. 
Many  short  hairs  however  elude  this  plucking  process, 
and  these  are  removed  by  a  machine  which  divides  the  soft 
fur  bj^  a  current  of  air,  and  leaves  the  stiff  hairs  standing 
alone  so  they  can  be  sheared  off  close  to  the  skin  without 
injury  to  the  under  fur. 

English  dyes  are  celebrated  for  their  brilliancy, 
but  are  said  to  reduce  the  quality  of  the  skin. 
The  French  dyers  plunge  the  skins  into  a  large  vat 
filled  with  logwood  dyes.  Owing  to  the  vegetable  nature 
of  their  dye  they  do  not  reduce  the  quality  of  the  skins 
as  much  as  the  English  dyes,  but  they  are  not  as  perma- 
nent. Belgian  dyed  skins  are  not  as  desirable  as  the 
French  as  cheap  madder  dyes  are  used  in  coloring  them. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  Chinaman,  with  all  his 
ingenuity,  is  a  very  poor  dyer  of  furs. 


SKINNING  AND  CASING. 

The  commercial  value  of  a  skin  depends  as  much  upon 
the  way  it  is  removed  from  the  animal  and  stretched  by 
the  trapper,  as  upon  the  skill  of  the  dresser.  Otte^-s,  foxes, 
martens,  minks,  opossums,  civets  and  skunks  should  be 
cased ;  that  is,  taken  off  whole.  Beavers  and  raccoons  should 
be  skinned  open ;  that  is,  ripped  up  the  belly  from  the  vent 
to  the  chin,  and  the  skin  removed  by  flaying. 

Where  skins  are  to  be  cased  a  cut  should  be  made  up  the 
center  of  one  hind  leg  and  around  the  vent  and  down  the 
other  leg;  then  if  the  tail  is  worth  preserving,  the  skin 
should  be  carefully  stripped  from  the  caudal  bone  without 
cutting  the  skin,  except  in  the  case  of  skunks  and  otters, 
whose  tails  should  be  split,  spread  and  tacked  on  a  board. 
The  skin  should  then  be  drawn  back  ovet  the  body,  pelt 
side  out  and  fur  in,  the  same  as  in  skinning  an  eel  or  draw- 
ing off  a  glove.  It  will  peel  oft'  easily  if  a  few  ligaments 
are  cut.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  cut  too  closely  around 
the  nose,  ears  and  lips. 


Fur  Dyeing.  51 

Cased  skins  should  be  stretched  on  boards,  tapering  from 
four  and  one-half  inches  in  width  down  to  three  inches  for 
mink,  and  from  six  to  five  inches  for  foxes.  The  boards 
for  the  mink  skins  should  be  three  feet  long  and  those  for 
foxes  four  feet.  Stretching  boards  should  be  rounded  at 
the  small  end,  smooth  and  even  on  the  edges,  and  not  more 
than  three-eights  of  an  inch  thick;  and  the  boards  for  the 
mink  should  taper  slightly  dow^n  to  within  four  or  five 
inches  of  the  point,  and  the  fox  boards  to  within  eight 
inches  of  the  rounded  end.  Stretching  boards  for  other 
animals  should  be  made  in  proportion,  according  to  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  animal. 

All  the  fat  and  flesh  should  always  be  removed  from  the 
skin  immediately  after  the  skin  is  on  the  board.  If  a  skin 
is  wet  when  taken  from  the  animal  it  should  be  drawn 
lightly  on  a  board,  flesh  side  in,  until  the  fur  is  quite  dry, 
then  the  skin  should  be  turned  flesh  side  out  and  stretched. 
Skins  should  never  be  dried  in  smoke  or  at  a  fire,  nor  in 
the  sun,  as  they  are  liable  to  become  scorched  or  hard, 
when  they  will  not  dress  properly  and  are  of  no  value. 
They  should  be  dried  in  a  well  covered  shed  or  tent  where 
there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air ;  and  no  preparation  such 
as  alum  and  salt  should  be  used,  as  it  only  injures  them  for 
the  market.  The  noses  must  never  be  stretched  out  long, 
as  fur  buyers  and  dealers  are  inclined  to  class  long-nosed 
skins  as  ' '  southern ' '  and  to  pay  a  small  price  for  them,  as 
all  southern  skins  are  much  lighter  in  fur  than  those  of 
the  north. 

Foxes  of  the  various  kinds  should  be  cased  and  put  on 
boards,  fur  side  in,  for  a  few  days,  or  until  dry.  As  the 
pelt  is  thin,  they  dry  soon,  when  they  must  be  taken  off 
and  turned  fur  side  out.  In  shipping,  care  should  be  taken 
that  they  are  not  packed  against  furs  with  the  flesh  side  out. 

Skunks  should  be  cased  fur  side  in.  and  stretched  on 
boards  for  several  days.  If  the  white  stripe  is  cut  out  or 
blackened  it  reduces  the  value  of  the  skins. 

Minks  should  be  cased  fur  side  in  and  stretched  on 
boards  for  several  days,  or  until  dry,  and  left  with  the  fur 
side  in  when  removed  from  the  board. 


52  Taxidermy. 

Muskrats  should  be  stretched  fur  side. in  for  a  few  days, 
and  left  fur  side  in  when  removed  from  the  board.  The 
tails  may  as  well  be  cut  off  when  skinning,  as  they  are 
worthless. 

Opossums  are  also  best  if  stretched  on  boards  fur  side 
in  and  left  in  that  condition  after  removing  the  boards. 
The  tails  should  be  cut  off  when  skinning — they  have  no 
value. 

Raccoons  should  be  stretched  open ;  that  is,  nailed  flat  on 
boards,  or  the  inside  of  a  building.  Some  dealers  allow  as 
much  for  coons  cased,  from  any  section,  while  others 
prefer  only  southern  coon  cased. 

Otters  should  be  cased  and  stretched  fur  side  in.  The 
pelt  being  thick  and  heavy  they  take  several  days  to  dry 
properly.    They  should  be  shipped  flesh  side  out. 

Beavers  should  be  split,  but  stretched  round  and  left  in 
the  hoop  or  stretcher  for  several  days. 

TAXIDERMY. 

The  old  method  of  stuffing  animals  is  as  different  from 
scientific  taxidermy  as  the  skin  covering  of  the  aborigine 
is  from  the  finished  fur  garment  of  the  fashionable  society 
woman.  The  taxidermist  of  today  carefully  molds  a  form 
according  to  accurate  measurements  and  photographed  out- 
lines, and  after  he  has  constructed  a  perfect  model  of  the 
animal  the  skin  is  stretched  over  it,  the  result  being  a  re- 
production as  near  to  nature  as  it  is  possible  to  secure, 
the  effect  in  some  cases  being  so  life-like  as  to  be  startling. 

Formerly  the  skins  were  wired  or  otherwise  fixed  on 
an  internal  framework,  and  cotton,  tow  or  any  other 
available  material  was  introduced  until  the  form  was 
stuffed  to  the  desired  shape;  later  a  solid  mass  of  tow 
was  shaped  into  something  like  the  semblance  of  the 
animal  and  introduced  into  the  skin,  which  was  then 
molded  upon  this  artificial  body,  but  neither  of  these 
processes  produced  the  results  obtained  by  the  scientific 
methods  now"  employed. 


53 


GRADING. 

Beaver — Ten  dollars  is  the  present  quotation  for 
"Large"  raw  Beaver  skins;  seven  to  eight  dollars  for  the 
''Medium;"  five  dollars  for  the  ''Small,"  and  three  dol- 
lars for  the  "Cubs."  The  best  American  skins  come  from 
Canada,  Maine  and  Nova  Scotia. 

The  "Civet  Cat"  skins  from  the  Northern  portion  of 
the  habitat  of  the  Little  Striped  Skunk  are  worth  about 
ten  cents  more  than  those  from  the  central  and  southwest- 
ern states.  These  skins  are  graded  as  "Large,"  "Me- 
dium" and  "Small;"  the  relative  values  of  the  different 
grades  being  seventy-five,  fifty  and  thirty-five  cents. 

Domestic  or  House  Cats  are  graded  as  "Black,"  Spot- 
ted" and  "Small;"  the  price  for  black  being  fifty  cents, 
for  the  spotted  twenty  cents,  and  for  the  small  five  cents. 

Fishers  are  graded  as  "Dark,"  "Brown"  and  "Me- 
dium," and  the  price  is  also  influenced  by  the  size  and 
quality;  prime  skins  being  worth  from  twelve  to  thirty 
dollars  and  upwards. 

Foxes — The  finest  Red  Foxes  come  from  Labrador, 
Nova  Scotia  and  Eastern  Canada,  and  are  worth  raw 
from  four  to  twelve  dollars  each  and  upwards,  according 
to  size,  color  and  quality;  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Vermont 
and  Ontario  skins  are  worth  a  dollar  less  than  the  fore- 
going, and  a  dollar  more  than  New  York,  Northern  Michi- 
gan and  Connecticut  Foxes.  Southern  and  Southwestern 
skins  are  the  poorest,  and  are  worth  less  than  half  what 
is  paid  for  those  secured  in  Maine  and  New  York.  The  in- 
termediate grades  are  obtained  from  the  Central  and  West- 
em  States.  No.  1  and  No.  2  Foxes  are  also  graded  accord- 
ing to  size,  "Large,"  "Medium"  and  "Small;"  the  No. 
3  and  No.  4  are  all  small. 

The  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Michigan, 
West  Virginia  and  Northern  Indiana  and  Ohio  Grey  Fox 
skins  are  worth  from  ten  to  fifty  cents  more  than  those 
from  Virginia,  Delaware,  Maryland  and  North  Carolina; 
which  in  turn  grade  somewhat  higher  than  the  Southern 
Ohio  and  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Missouri  and  Oklahoma 
skins. 


54  Grading. 

Silver  Foxes  bring  from  one  thousand  to  twenty-five 
hundred  dollars,  according  to  size,  quality  and  color. 

The  best  American  Lynx  skins  come  from  Canada, 
Maine  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  are  graded  as  No.  1 — Large, 
Medium  and  Small ;  No.  2 — Large,  Medium  and  Small ;  No. 
3,  and  No.  4;  the  prices  ranging  from  three  dollars  to 
twenty-five  dollars  and  upward  each. 

Minks  are  graded  closer  than  any  other  skins ;  first  they 
are  sorted  with  reference  to  locality,  then  they  are  graded 
according  to  quality  and  color  into  dark  and  brown  and 
No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4  skins,  after  which  the  No.  1 
and  No.  2  skins  are  again  sorted  into  Large,  Me- 
dium and  Small  before  a  valuation  is  placed  on  them; 
No.  3  skins  are  out  of  season  skins  of  little  value,  and  those 
finally  graded  as  No.  4  are  small  and  stagy,  or  damaged 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  comparatively  worthless. 

Maine,  Labrador,  Nova  Scotia  and  Eastern  Canada 
skins  are  known  as  ''North  Eastern"  Mink;  those  from 
Northern  New  York  and  New  England  are  called  ''Eastern 
Minks ; ' '  the  Central  and  Southern  New  York  and  Michi- 
gan, Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Illinois, 
West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Northern  Ken- 
tucky, Delaware  and  Maryland  Minks  grade  between  the 
*" Eastern"  and  the  "Western"  Minks,  as  the  skins  from 
Kansas,  Missouri,  Oklahoma  and  Nebraska  are  called. 
"Southern"  and  "South  Western"  Minks  are  the  lightest 
in  color  and  poorest  in  quality;  but  the  "North  Western" 
skins  from  Wisconsin,  Northern  Michigan,  Minnesota  and 
the  regions  beyond,  are  of  good  color,  and  while  the  fur 
is  not  as  soft  or  rich  as  that  on  the  "Eastern"  Minks,  the 
skins  are  so  much  larger  that  they  often  bring  almost  as 
high  prices  as  the  "Eastern"  skins  although  the  general 
average  is  considerably  less. 

Muskrats — Raw  skin  buyers  pay  from  five  to  fifteen 
cents  more  for  "Large  Winter"  than  they  do  for  "Large 
Fall"  rats,  and  the  "Small"  skins  are  worth  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  cents  less  than  the  large  ones  of  the  same 
grade;  when  the  price  for  perfect  "Large  Winter"  skins 
is  fifty-five  cents,  "Kitts"  are  valued  at  about  eight  cents. 

New  York  State,  New  England,  Canada,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Northern  Pennsylvania,  Northern  New  Jersey,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Michigan  and  Illinois  Muskrats  are  worth  from 


Grading.  55 

five  to  ten  cents  more  than  those  from  Delaware,  Kansas, 
W.  Virginia,  Virginia,  Central  Pennsylvania,  Southern 
Ohio,  Southern  New  York,  North  Carolina,  Kentucky, 
Maryland,  and  Missouri.  The  poorest  skins  come  from 
Texas  and  Louisiana,  and  bring  about  half  of  the  price 
paid  for  the  New  York  State  skins,  and  about  ten  cents 
less  than  Tennessee,  Georgia  and  Alabama  rats. 

Black  muskrats  are  more  numerous  in  the  Delaware, 
Maryland  and  Virginia  District  than  elsewhere,  and  are 
worth  about  fifty  per  cent,  more  than  the  regular  brown 
variety;  the  comparatively  small  number  of  black  skins 
secured  from  the  New  York,  New  England  and  Canada 
district  bring  about  five  cents  more  than  the  southern  skins 
of  this  variety. 

Opossums  are  graded  according  to  size  and  quality  as 
No.  1 — Large,  Small  and  Medium;  No.  2 — Large,  Small 
and  Medium ;  No.  3,  and  No.  4.  The  best  skins  come  from 
the  Eastern  and  Central  States;  next  in  quality  are  the 
skins  from  the  old  ''Border  States,"  and  the  poorest  skins 
come  from  the  South  and  Southwest;  prices  for  No.  1 — 
Large,  range  from  sixty-five  cents  to  ninety  cents  and  up- 
ward. 

The  finest  American  Otters  come  from  Maine,  Nova 
Scotia,  Labrador  and  Eastern  Canada ;  next  in  quality  are 
the  skins  from  Northern  New  York,  New  England,  West- 
ern Canada  and  Northern  Michigan;  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  West  Virginia,  Mississippi,  Northern 
Kentucky,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Virginia  and  North  Carolina 
skins  are  lighter  in  fur  and  color  than  either  of  the  fore- 
going, and  the  skins  from  the  extreme  southern  states  are 
only  worth  about  half  the  price  paid  for  Canada  and  Maine 
skins.  Otter  skins  are  graded  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3  and 
No.  4,  according  to  color  and  quality,  and  then  regraded 
according  to  size  as  ''Large,"  "Small"  and  "Medium." 

Raccoons — New  York,  New  England,  Canada,  Northern 
Pennsylvania  and  Michigan  Raccoons  are  the  finest;  but 
Central  Pennsylvania  and  Michigan,  Northern  Ohio,  Illi- 
nois and  New  Jersey  skins  almost  equal  them  in  quality. 
Central  and  Southern  Ohio,  Indiana,  Kansas  and  Northern 
Kentucky  and  Missouri  skins  are  considerably  lighter  in  fur 
and  color;  and  the  skins  from  further  south  are  still  less 


56  Grading, 

valuable,  those  from  Georgia  and  Florida  being  worth  only 
about  one-third  the  price  asked  for  skins  from  the  New 
York  and  New  England  district.  Raccoons  are  graded 
as  ''Large,"  ''Medium"  and  "Small,"  according  to  size; 
and  as  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4,  according  to  quality 
and  color.  A  large  No.  1  New  York  skin  is  worth  from 
three  dollars  and  fifty  cents  upwards,  the  extra  dark  and 
black  skins  bringing  as  high  as  seven  dollars  and  fifty 
cents. 

H.  B.  Sable — "Dark"  Eastern  and  Canada  Martens  are 
worth  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  dollars  and  upwards,  some 
bringing  as  high  as  ninety  dollars ;  the  ' '  Brown ' '  skins  are 
worth  about  forty  per  cent,  less,  and  the  "Pale"  skins 
some  fifty  per  cent  less  than  the  price  asked  for  dark  skins 
of  the  same  size  and  quality. 

Skunks  are  graded  as  "Black,"  "Short  Stripe,"  "Nar- 
row^ Stripe"  and  "Broad  Stripe;"  the  relative  values  of 
the  different  grades  being  four  dollars,  three  dollars,  one 
dollar  and  sixty  cents,  and  seventy-five  cents.  The  best 
skunks  come  from  New  York,  Northern  Ohio,  Northern 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
Maine,  Vermont  and  Canada ;  but  they  are  almost  equalled 
in  quality  by  those  from  New  Jersey,  Central  Pennsyl- 
vania, West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Nebraska  and 
Oklahoma.  The  skins  from  Indiana,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
Southern  Ohio,  Northern  Kentucky  and  North  Carolina 
are  less  desirable;  and  those  from  the  other  southern 
states  are  poorer  still. 

Wild  Cat  skins  are  graded  as  "Large,"  "Medium"  and 
"Small,"  and  the  heaviest  furred  come  from  Canada  and 
Maine.  Those  from  the  Central  States  are  of  medium  qual- 
ity, and  Southern  and  Southwestern  skins  are  very  poor. 
Wild  Cats,  .quality  for  quality,  are  worth  about  one-third 
the  price  of  Lynx  skins. 


57 


SIZE,  COLOR  AND  QUALITY. 

Wild  animals,  like  human  beings,  seem  to  develop  best 
where  they  are  obliged  to  put  forth  some  effort  to  procure 
the  means  for  subsistence.  The  largest  and  most  powerful 
representatives  of  any  species  are  not  found  in  the  fertile 
valleys  but  on  the  barren  mountains,  and  where  the  range 
of  a  species  extends  through  different  latitudes  the  animals 
increase  in  size  as  they  move  away  from  the  equator  and 
approach  the  poles.  The  males  of  any  species  are  larger  than 
the  females.  Inbreeding  makes  the  stock  become  more 
symmetrical  but  smaller,  while  crossing  the  various  strains 
produces  larger  animals. 

With  the  exception  of  the  beaver  and  Alaska  red  fox  the 
darkest  hued  representatives  of  every  species  are  those  liv- 
ing nearest  the  equator.  Cold  seems  to  cause  the  fur  of  all 
animals  to  become  lighter  in  color,  and  white  mammals  as 
a  race  are  found  only  in  the  arctic  regions.  The  fur  also 
becomes  lighter  with  age,  the  new  growth  with  a  few  not- 
able exceptions  always  being  darker  than  the  old  coat. 
White,  black,  brown,  and  grey  are  the  predominating  colors; 
but  red  and  yellow  mammals  are  quite  numerous,  and  a 
few  species  even  show  a  blue  tinge. 

White  has  always  been  considered  a  mark  of  distinction 
in  fur.  The  North  American  Indian  set  a  high  value  on  a 
white  "Buffalo "and  would  give  several  horses  in  exchange 
for  it.  The  Alaska  Indians  would  give  five  otters  or  foxes 
for  a  single  white  marten.  White  elephants  are  regarded 
with  reverence  in  Siam.  The  sacred  ox  of  India  is  white, 
and  the  coronation  robes  of  royalty  have  always  been  made 
of  white  ermine. 

The  beaver  attains  its  greatest  depth  of  color  in  certain 
districts  of  Canada,  and  the  Alaska  Red  Fox  is  much 
darker  than  the  more  southern  representatives  of  the 
species,  but  with  very  few  exceptions  there  is  a  decrease 
in  pigment  as  animals  move  away  from  the  equator  and 
approach  the  poles.  The  tropical  mammals  have  been 
known  to  become  lighter  haired  when  they  have  been 
kept  in  captivity  in  colder  climates. 


58  Size,  Color  and  Quality. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Badger,  Hamster,  Panda  and 
Ratel  which  are  darker  on  the  under  than  the  upper  parts, 
all  fur  bearing  animals  have  darker  fur  on  the  back  than 
on  the  sides  and  belly. 

Albino  specimens  of  different  animals  are  occasionally 
seen,  but  they  are  undoubtedly  freaks  rather  than  distinct 
species  of  their  genus. 

The  finest  specimens  of  any  species  are  found  in  the  high- 
est latitudes.  On  all  animals  the  quality  of  the  fur 
improves  with  cold,  being  poorest  on  those  whose  habitat 
is  in  the  torrid  zone  unless  they  live  at  a  sufficiently  high 
latitude  to  secure  for  them  a  low  temperature.  In  the 
temperate  zone  the  quality  of  the  fur  depends  upon  the 
severity  of  the  winter.  In  all  climates  the  fur  of  animals 
found  in  the  dense  forests  is  deeper,  silkier,  and  glossier 
than  that  of  mammals  whose  range  is  on  the  open  steppes 
or  prairies;  and  animals  living  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and 
rivers  have  a  finer,  softer  coat  than  those  who  are  exposed 
to  the  sea  winds  on  the  coast.  The  fur  on  all  animals  is  at 
its  best  when  it  is  from  one  to  two  years  old.  On  older 
animals  the  hair  is  coarse  and  scraggy,  while  the  pelt  of  so- 
called  baby  skins  is  very  tender  and  the  fur  on  them  is  too 
soft  to  be  servicable.  The  fur  on  any  animal  usually  reaches 
its  full  growth  in  mid-winter,  and  only  skins  taken  be- 
tween that  time  and  early  spring  are  in  fine  condition; 
before  that  time  the  hair  is  short  and  stagy,  and  later  the 
animal  begins  to  shed  its  old  coat  for  a  new  one  and  the 
hairs  of  skins  taken  at  that  time  will  continue  to  fall  out, 
even  after  the  skins  have  been  dressed. 

The  sexes  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  about  equal  in  num- 
ber, and  the  same  is  true  of  dogs  and  seals  the  only 
other  animals  of  which  we  have  any  reliable  statistics. 
Naturalists  generally  claim  that  the  number  of  females 
in  most  species  exceeds  the  males,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  upon  what  they  base  their  calculations.  If 
it  is  upon  the  polygamous  nature  of  most  mammals  the 
seals  are  a  positive  proof  to  the  contrary. 


Size,  Color  and  Quality. 


59 


RELATIVE  DURABILITY  AND  WEIGHT. 

The  life  of  furs  can  now  be  so  prolonged  by  dry  cold 
storage,  which  not  only  protects  them  from  moths  but 
prevents  the  change  of  color  and  the  deterioration  that 
formerly  resulted  from  the  evaporation  in  high  tempera- 
tures and  hot  atmospheres  of  the  natural  oils  in  the  skin 
and  hairs,  that  the  durability  of  the  fur  must  be  consid- 
ered as  well  as  the  cost  in  determining  its  real  value. 

Taking  the  Otter  at  100  as  the  standard  the  relative 
durability  of  some  of  the  best-known  furs  is  shown  in 
the  following  table,  which  also  gives  the  weight  per  square 
foot  of  the  skins  mentioned : 


Ounces. 

Astrachan-Moire 10 — 3 

Beaver-Natural    90 — 4 

-Plucked    85—3% 

Bear-Black  or  Brown.  94 — 7 

Chinchilla    15 — 1% 

Civet  Cat 40—2% 

Cony   20—3 

Ermine    25 — l^i 

Fox-Natural    40 — 3 

-Dyed  Black 25—3 

-Blue 20—3 

Genet    35 — 2% 

Goat    15—41/8 

Hare   5— 2l^ 

Jackal 27 — 414 

Koala    12 — 4 

Kolinsky    25 — 3 

Krimmer    60 — 3 

Leopard    75 — 4 

Lynx   25—2% 

Marmot-Dyed   20 — 3 

Marten-Baum    65^2% 

-  ''      Blended  45—2% 
-Stone    45—2% 

-  "       Dyed...  35—278 
Mink-Natural    70— 3^^ 

-Dyed    35—314 

-Japan    20 — 3 


Ounces. 

Mole    7—1% 

Muskrat-Natural    ....   45 — 314 

-Seal    33—3^ 

Nutria-Plucked 25—314 

Otter-Natural    100—4% 

-Plucked  95—3% 

-Sea    100—41/2 

Opossum-Natural    ....    37 — 3 

-Dyed    20—3 

-Australian..    40 — 31^ 

Persian   65—3^ 

Pony-Eussian    35 — 3% 

Rabbit    5—2^ 

Eaccoon-Natural    65 — 4i^ 

-Dyed    50— 4i^ 

Sable-Natural   60 — 2i^ 

-Blended  45— 21/2 

Skunk-Natural   70—2% 

-Tipped    50—2% 

Seal- (Hair)    80—3 

-  ''     -Dyed   75-3^4 

-(Fur)    80—31/2 

-  '*    -Dyed  ....   70—31/8 
Squirrel-Back    25 — 1% 

-    "    Blended.  20—1% 

Wolf -Natural    50— 6 1/2 

-Dyed    30—6% 

Wolverine    100 — 7 


60  Annual  Supply. 

The  foregoing  figures  refer  to  skins  worked  up  into 
muffs,  neckpieces,  caps,  gloves  and  garments  with  the  fur 
outside.  In  estimating  the  wearing  quality  of  linings  for 
women's  wraps  the  Sable  Gills,  which  weigh  2%  ounces 
to  the  square  foot  and  have  less  than  forty  per  cent,  of 
the  strength  of  unplucked  Otter  fur,  are  taken  as  the 
standard  at  100.  The  relative  durability  and  weight^  of 
other  linings  is  as  follows : 

Ounces,  Ounces. 

Coney   40—3  Sable-Skin    85—2% 

Ermine    57— 1  Vo  -Head   65—1% 

Fox-White   50—3  Squirrel-Back    50—1% 

Hamster   10— l^A  -Belly    20—1^ 

Kit  Eat    60—3  -Head  35— 2yo 


ANNUAL  SUPPLY. 

All  estimates  as  to  the  number  of  Fur-Bearing  Animals 
killed  annually  are  largely  speculative.  It  is  true  that  the 
sales  reports  from  London,  Leipzic  and  the  Russian  Fur 
Markets  show  how  many  skins  are  sold  each  year  at  the 
regular  fur  sales,  but  they  do  not  tell  how  many  of  the 
offerings  were  skins  held  over  from  previous  years  or  re- 
sold for  former  purchasers;  and  there  is  positively  no  way 
of  finding  out  how  many  skins  pass  directly  from  the  hands 
of  the  trappers  and  collectors  into  those  of  the  manufac- 
turers, nor  how  many  are  kept  by  the  hunters  for  their 
own  personal  use. 

The  following  figures  are  based  upon  information 
received  from  a  number  of  sources,  and  while  necessarily 
only  tentative  give  the  reader  an  approximate  idea  of  the 
quantities  of  the  various  skins  marketed  each  year,  and 
positive  information  as  to  the  localities  from  which  the 
different  kinds  are  obtained: 


Annual  Quantities. 


61 


America  Europe 


Asia 


Africa  and 
Australia 


Astrachan    

Broadtail     

Badger    

Bassarisk    

Bear-Black    

-Brown    

-Grizzly    

-Polar    

Beaver    

Cat-Domestic    

-Lynx    

-Tiger    

-Wild  

Chinchilla   (Peru)    .  . 

-Bastard  (Chili) 

''    (Bolivia) 

Chinchillones  (Bolivia 

and  Peru)    

Civet   

"Civet  Cat"   

Coney  (Rabbit)    .... 

Dog-Chinese,  etc 

Ermine    

Fisher    

Fitch   (Pole  Cat).... 

Fox-Blue    

-Cross    

-Grey    

-Kitt    

"       (Brazil)... 
-(Patagonia)    ... 

-Red    

-Silver    

-White    

Goats-Chinese    

"       Kids... 

Guanaco   (S.  A.) .  . .  . 

Hamster-Germany    .  . 

-Austro-Hun- 

gary 

Jackals 

Jaguar  (S.  A.) 

Kolinsky    

Kangaroo    

Krimmer    

Leopard    

-Clouded    .... 

-Snow    

Leopard  Cats   


100,000 

30,000 

100,000 

30,000 

25,000* 

40,000 

20,000 

1,000 



2,000 

2,000 

7,000 

. . . .'. . 

1,000 





350 

250 

400 



80,000 

1,000 

75,000 

700,000 

150,000 

40,000 

20,000 

10,000 

5,000 



10,000 

30,000 

....;.. 

1,000 

20,000 



10,000 

15,000 

...... 

30,000 



150,000 





50,000,000 

400,000 

15,000,000* 

150,000 

10,000 

750,000 

...... 

12,000 



150,000 

200,000 

5,000 

700 

2,500 

15,000 



10,000 

50,000 

150,000 



10,000 

40,000 



60,000 

...... 

10,000 

200,000 

700,000 

200,000 

50,000* 

5,000 

1,000 

30,000 

10,000 

25,000 
400,000 
800,000 

20,000 

1,500,000 
500,000 



10,000 

15,000 

300 



200,000 
400,000 

50,000* 

5,000 

6.000 



250 

750 

5,000 

62  Annual  Quantities. 

Africa  and 

America  Europe             Asia          Australia 

Lions 200 

Lynx    50,000  10,000  

Marmot    25,000  500,000       3,000,000  

Marten-Baum 150,000  

-Stone    250,000  

Mink    500,000  500  20,000  

-China  (Weasel)        300,000  

-Japan    200,000  

-Kussian    20,000  

Mole    1,000,000 

Monkey    10,000 

Moufflon     200,000  

Muskrat     5,000,000  5,000  

Musk   Ox   500  

Nutria    (S.  A.) 500,000  10,000* 

Opossum    1,000,000  2,500,000* 

Otter    30,000  20,000  40,000  

-(S.   A.) 5,000  

-Sea    350  

Palmi    80,000  

Perwitsky    3,000  50,000  

Persian  Lamb 100  1,500,000  

Poney     50,000  150,000  

Eaccoon    ; 500,000  

Baccoon-Dog 300,000  

Ringtails 50,000* 

Sable-Russian    75,000  

-H.  B 100,000  

-Japan 5,000  

-Chinese 10,000  

Skunk    1,200,000  10,000  

-(S.  A.)    5,000  

Slink  Lamb 100,000  

-(S.  A.)    350,000  

Shiras  Lamb 150,000  

Squirrel    7,000,000       6,000,000  

Susliki    500,000  

Tiger 500  

Vicuna   (S.  A.) 15,000  

White   Weasel    .....      200,000  

Wallaby 750,000* 

Wolf -Prairie    40,000  

-Timber    8,000  5,000  15,000  

Wolverine 3,000  1,000  4,000  

Wombat 200,000* 

Items  marked  *  are  Australian  products  exclusively. 
The  Japanese  skins  have  been  included  in  the  Asiatic 
estimates. 


Annual  Quantities.  63 

The  present  yearly  catch  of  Hair  Seals  is  about  250,000. 
Under  the  existing  agreement  between  the  maritime  pow- 
ers there  will  be  no  North  West  Coast  Fur  Seals  for  the 
next  five  years,  the  killing  of  Alaska  Seals  on  the  Pribilof 
Islands  will  be  limited  to  about  3,000  a  year  and  the 
supply  of  Copper  Island  Skins  will  be  less  than  5,000  per 
year.  From  the  South  Sea  Islands  about  5,000  skins  are 
received  annually,  and  the  same  number  of  Cape  Horn 
Skins  come  into  the  market  each  year,  together  with  3,000 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  Skins,  and  about  10,000  Lobos  Island 
Skins  from  the  South  Atlantic. 

About  one  million  of  the  European  Rabbit  skins  come 
from  Russia,  a  half  a  million  come  from  Germany,  twenty 
million  from  Belgium  and  the  balance  from  France. 

Holland  supplies  two  hundred  thousand  of  the  Euro- 
pean Cat  Skins,  Germany  one  hundred  thousand,  Russia 
three  hundred  thousand,  and  the  rest  come  from  different 
parts  of  the  Continent. 

Germany  is  credited  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  thou- 
sand of  the  European  Red  Foxes,  Russia  with  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand,  and  Norway  with  twenty-five  thousand. 
Of  the  Asiatic  supply  about  sixty  thousand  come  from 
Siberia,  and  fifty  thousand  from  China  and  Japan. 

Most  of  the  Tanucki  or  Raccoon-Dog  skins  are  shipped 
from  Japan;  but  China  furnishes  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  of  the  skins,  and  Korea  about  thirty  thou 
sand. 

More  than  one-third  of  the  European  Pole  Cats  come 
from  Germany.  The  skins  from  the  eastern  provinces  of 
European  Russia  are  so  much  like  the  Siberian  variety 
that  they  are  included  with  the  latter  in  the  Asiatic 
estimate. 

Of  the  Baum-martens,  fifty  thousand  come  from  Ger- 
many, fifty  thousand  from  Russia  and  twenty  thousand 
from  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Germany  contributes  one  hundred  thousand  of  the 
Stone  Martens,  Bosnia  and  Turkey  fifty  thousand,  and 
Russia  an  equal  quantity. 

Of  the  Asiatic  Marmots  China  and  Manchuria  supply 
five  hundred  thousand.    The  balance  come  from  Siberia. 


64  Increasing  Quantities. 

^ith  the  exception  of  a  few  hundred  thousand  skins 
from  China  and  a  small  number  from  Japan,  all  the 
Asiatic  Squirrels  come  from  Siberia.  Six  million  of  the 
squirrel  skins  credited  to  Europe  come  from  Kasan  and 
other  Russian  provinces. 


INCREASING  QUANTITIES. 

In  1875,  P.  L.  Simmonds  said:  ''It  must  be  remembered 
that  fur  bearing  animals  like  human  beings  and  cattle 
are  liable  to  periodical  failures  of  food,  or  periodical  inroads 
of  disease.  Experience  shows  that  their  abundance  runs  in 
cycles.  The  failure  one  year  of  an  insignificant  class  of 
animals  may  cause  the  decrease  the  next  year  of  a  far 
more  valuable  beast  which  feeds  on  the  former.  The  whole 
chain  of  animal  life  is  more  or  less  linked  together,  and 
the  different  species  as  they  depend  on  each  other  fall  off 
or  increase  again,  according  as  the  supply  of  food  and  the 
vigor  of  each  class  may  be  more  or  less  abundant. 

' '  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  some  species  have  been  extermin- 
ated and  others  decimated  by  indiscriminate  and  Avanton 
slaughter,  on  the  whole  the  quantity  of  skins  of  wild 
animals  seems  to  be  increasing  yearly.  We  drive  animals 
back  at  some  points,  but  for  the  last  two  centuries  the  grand 
total  of  skins  collected  annually  has  been  steadily  increas- 
ing; and  it  does  not  seem  as  if  the  globe  was  sufficiently 
peopled  yet  for  man  to  arrest  the  production  of  animal 
life.  In  fact,  agriculture  increases  the  production  of  some 
fur  bearing  animals  by  augmenting  their  food  supplies; 
and  the  changes  in  fashion  give  the  species  that  is  threat- 
ened with  extermination  one  year,  an  opportunity  to 
recover  lost  ground  in  the  next  while  a  new  favorite  is 
being  hunted. ' ' 

Some  people  may  be  disposed  to  question  the  truth  of 
the  statement  that  upwards  of  a  hundred  million  fur  pro- 
ducing animals  are  killed  every  year,  but  a  careful  con- 
sideration of  the  statistics  available  shows  that  the  actual 
total  for  the  past  few  years  has  far  exceeded  that  figure; 


Increasing  Quantities.  65 

and  that  some  of  the  animals  that  are  most  hunted  are 
showing  an  increase  in  numbers  instead  of  falling  off,  so  it 
appears  that  the  contention  of  Mr.  Simmonds  is  as  true  to- 
day as  it  was  nearly  forty  years  ago.  It  is  a  fact  that  some  of 
the  larger  wild  animals  are,  and  have  been  for  some  time 
past,  steadily  decreasing,  but  on  the  other  hand  there  are 
species  that  could  be  mentioned  which  are  increasing  in 
numerical  strength  every  year  in  spite  of  vast  numbers  that 
are  slaughtered  to  supply  the  demands  of  commerce. 

The  following  figures  showing  the  shipments  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  in  1856  and  1875,  were  given  by  Mr. 
Simmonds  in  support  of  his  contention.  The  reader  will  be 
interested  in  a  comparison  of  these  figures,  with  the  reports 
that  show  the  quantities  offered  at  the  London  sales  by  C. 
M.  Lampson  &  Co.  in  1913. 

1856  1875 

Badger '     1,105  2,001 

Bear 9,255  5,898 

Beaver    74,482  100,721 

Fisher   5,182  2,186 

Fox,   cross    1,951  1,961 

Fox,  kitt    3,370  2,699 

Fox,  red    7,371  7,644 

Fox,  silver 613  603 

Fox,  white   10,292  4,333 

Lynx  and  Lynx  Cat 11,634  15,661 

Marten    179,275  61,782 

Mink   61,516  62,760 

Musquash   258,791  503,948 

Otter  13,740  9,825 

Sea  Otter  290  11 

Porpoise,  half  skins 483  131 

Rabbit 90,937  48,291 

Raccoon  1,798  1,632 

Seal,  fur 36  1,427 

Seal,  hair 5,263  3,743 

Skunk   11,319  2,331 

Wolf 7,576  1,608 

Wolverine    1,142  1,052 

Total 757,431  842,248 


66  Increasing  Quantities. 

C.  M.  LAMPSON  &  CO.  REPORT,  1913. 

January  March  June  October 

Badger 1,887  3,529  4,438  2,904 

-Japanese  ...       1,254  1,935  978  1,092 

Bear  3,150  5,294  3,966  5,098 

Beaver 7,575  7,498  3,417  4,580 

Cat-Civet 37,102  37,349  19,894  13,823 

-House 14,561  35,239  23,450  24,427 

-Wild 8,942  6,594  5,797  13,977 

Chinchilla-Bastard 

-Real 3,624  12,300  1,731  2,339 

Ermine   58,747  79,718  70,315  43,252 

Fisher 433  1,042  448  499 

Fitch 4,050  6,777  10,043  8,145 

Fox-Blue 248  2,388  88  787 

•  -Cross 539  2,030  502  1,041 

-Grey •  5,720  13,418  7,291  6,593 

-Kitt 17,806  5,893  8,146  31,443 

-Japanese 4,474  3,106  1,679  6,058 

-Red   15,393  17,889  26,254  36,859 

-Red  Australian..     45,695  19,995  10,560  49,457 

-Silver 77  553  113  213 

-White   5,196  2,279  1,018  4,250 

Kangaroo   4,022  4,295  695  16,682 

Kolinsky 18,646  22,900  15,326  86,945 

Lynx  .\ 1,571  717  2,651  3,161 

Marten 6,428  8,879  5,997  6,257 

-Baum 541  471  977  1,093 

-Japanese  ....       5,453  550  683  2,369 

-Stone 1,033  2,596  1,939  2,052 

Mink 32,620  51,125  12,203  24,671 

Mole 203,985  312,449  447,164  491,526 

Muskrat 1,635,768  826,394  784,575  614,273 

-Black 10,870  17,060  36,105  12,729 

Opossum-American  . .   272,068  323,393  165,552  54,581 

-Australian  .     90,155  87,500  20,498  77,447 

-Ringtail...     61,641  33,234  3,741  193,426 

Otter 5,003  4,426  2,403  2,571 

Raccoon 70,914  140,611  54,966  36,229 

Sable-Japanese 57  170 

-Russian   1,670  8,294  59  1,487 


Prices.  67 


January  March 

Seal-Dry  Hair 1,229  207 

-Dry  Fur 204 

-Salted  Fur 5,570  1,795 

Sea  Otter 81 

Skunk  314,783  334,379 

Squirrel 212,790  123,197 

-Sacs  &  Plates       7,919  4,932 

Wallaby 331,017  171,117 

Wolf 18,036  20,380 

Wolverine  . 250  692 

Wombat 1.106  252 


June 

October 

87 

17 

34 



570 

7,010 

155,038 

59,438 

141,658 

150,532 

4,314 

5,906 

152,702 

225,654 

8,312 

6,487 

190 

609 

1,622 

1,696 

PRICES. 

The  prices  of  skins  are  regulated  by  the  condition  of  the 
pelt  as  well  as  the  quality  of  the  fur.  If  they  have  been 
torn  in  the  trap  or  riddled  with  shot  or  otherwise  mutil- 
ated they  cannot  be  graded  as  No.  1  skins,  no  matter  how 
fine  the  quality  of  the  fur.  The  skins  that  have  been  well 
stretched  and  dyed  bring  better  prices  than  those  of  the 
same  quality  that  have  been  carelessly  handled.  Collectors 
always  prefer  minks,  muskrats,  otters,  fishers,  opossums  and 
skunks  when  they  are  ''cased";  that  is,  not  cut  open  on 
the  belly.  Experts  are  able  to  judge  the  quality  of  cased 
skins  by  the  appearance  of  the  pelt.  The  veiny  skins  are 
generally  poor  in  quality;  and  half-seasoned  skins  have  a 
dark  bluish  stripe  down  the  back  or  side.  The  pelt  of  stagy 
skins  is  quite  dark,  having  a  uniform  blue  hue. 

The  question  of  locality  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
determining  the  value  of  skins;  for  instance,  the  finest 
skunks  are  found  in  Ohio,  while  the  best  minks  come  from 
northern  New  York,  Maine,  and  Nova  Scotia.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule  the  furs  of  the  eastern  are  better  than  those  of 
the  western  provinces  of  Siberia;  but  the  ermine  near  the 
Rivers  Irkutz,  Oby  and  Ishin  form  a  notable  exception, 
being  worth  three  times  more  than  those  found  beyond 
the  Lena  River. 


68  Prices. 

An  idea  of  how  the  prices  of  certain  skins  have  advanced 
can  be  formed  by  a  comparison  of  the  fibres  quoted  in 
1875,  and  the  prices  ruling  today : 

1875 

Beaver   $1.00  per  lb. 

Bear— Black   5.00—  8.00 

Bear — Brown    7.50 

Ermine   .50 

Fisher   5.00 

Fox— Black    100.00 

Fox— Blue   

Fox — Cross 

Fox — Grey  

Fox— Red 

Fox— Silver   50.00 

Fox— White  

Fur  Seal 10.00 

Lynx  3.00 

Marten 5.00—10.00 

Mink   2.00 

Muskrat .20 

Marmot  (Siffleur)    .50 

Otter — Common 5.00 

Otter— Sea   50.00—80.00 

Squirrel  .12 

Wolf 2.50 

Wolverine 1.00 

Wild  Cat   .75 

During  the  period  from  1882  to  1910  Black  Foxes  ad- 
vanced 400%  in  price,  Red  Foxes  500%,  Sea  Otters  300%, 
Lynes  800%^,  Persians  300%,  Chinchillas  1,400%,  Skunks 
250%,  Minks  800%,  Muskrats  500%?,,  Marmots  500%, 
Stone  Martens  450%,  Sables  400 %?,  Japanese  Mink  500%, 
Japanese  Marten  1,000%,  Japanese  Fox  500%,  Chinese 
Weasels  500%,  Australian  Opossum  1,200%,  Kangaroos 
1,200%,  Native  Cats  1,200%,  Wallabies  1,600%,,  and 
Wombats  600%. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  skins  shipped 
from  Alaska  during  the  year  1913  and  the  prices  at  which 
they  were  billed  to  the  consignees : 


1913 

Each. 

8.00— 

25.00 

8.00— 

50.00 

15.00— 

30.00 

1.50 

5.00 

15.00 

50.00 

500.00  1800.00 

35.00— 

100.00 

20.00— 

100.00 

3.00— 

7.00 

5.00— 

20.00 

125.00  1200.00 

20.00 

50.00 

30.00— 

125.00 

12.50— 

50.00 

10.00 

50.00 

2.50 

20.00 

.40— 

1.00 

1.00 

2.00 

10.00 

60.00 

250.00  1800.00 

.40 

.75 

2.00— 

12.00 

12.00 

30.00 

1.50— 

10.00 

Prices.  69 

Average  Total 

Species  Number  Value  Value 

Bear,  black 698  $     7.50  $     5,212.50 

Bear,  brown   19  9.00  171.00 

Bear,  glacier 5  15.00  75.00 

Bear,  polar 9  40.00  360.00 

Beaver    Sd  10.00  890.00 

Ermine   7,957  1.36  10,821.52 

Pox,  black 3  600.00  1,800.00 

Fox,  blue   502  45.00  22,590.00 

Pox,  blue,  Pribilof  Islands  384  56.53  21,708.48 

Pox,  cross   603  17.00  10,251.00 

Pox,  red 8,018  8.50  68,153.00 

Pox,  silver  gray 142  250.00  35,500.00 

Pox,  white 3.108  12.50  38,850.00 

Pox,  white,  Pribilof  Islands  29  17.29  501.43 

Hare,  Arctic   55  40  22.00 

Lynx 2,720  21.50  58,480.00 

Marten   12,999  12.50  162,487.50 

Mink  31,363  4.50  141,133.50 

Muskrat   123,925  .40  49,570.00 

Otter,  land 1,480  14.00  20,720.00 

Otter,  sea 1  200.00  200.00 

Reindeer,  fawn 4  1.00  4.00 

Seal,  fur 3,764  37.50  141,290.32 

Seal,  hair 333  1.50  499.50 

Squirrel    611  .08  48.88 

Wolf   103  9.00  927.00 

Wolverine    189  10.00  1,890.00 

Total $794,156.63 


TARIFF. 

Long  before  General  Hancock  said,  "The  tariff  is  a 
local  issue, '^  John  Jacob  Astor  proved  by  the  representa- 
tions he  made  to  the  government  on  two  different  occasions 
that  what  the  American  business  man  really  wants  is  pro- 
tection for  the  product  he  is  selling,  and  an  open  market 
for  the  goods  he  is  compelled  to  buy.  In  1807,  when  he  felt 
that  the  Mackinaw  Company  and  other  competing  traders 
were  interfering  with  the  profits  of  his  business,  Mr.  Astor 


70  Tariff. 

asked  the  government  to  aid  and  protect  him  in  a  scheme 
that  would  secure  to  him  a  virtual  monopoly  of  the  fur 
trade  of  America.  In  1829  he  addressed  the  following  letter 
to  Senator  Bentley  with  reference  to  duties  imposed  on  ar- 
ticles that  he  traded  to  the  Indians  :  ' '  It  is  known  that  none 
of  the  woolen  goods  fit  for  the  Indian  trade  such  as  Indian 
blankets,  strouds,  and  cloths  of  particular  descriptions  are 
as  yet  manufactured  in  this  country.  We  are  therefore 
obliged  to  import  them  from  England,  and  it  so  happens 
that  those  are  just  the  articles  paying  the  heaviest  duty. 
The  English  traders  have  theirs  free  of  duty  which  enables 
them  to  bring  their  goods  sixty  per  cent  and  over  cheaper 
than  we  pay,  and  they  are  thereby  enabled  to  undersell 
us.  Their  furs  and  skins  cost  them  a  little  more  than  half 
what  we  have  to  pay  for  ours,  but  this  is  not  all.  They 
are  by  these  same  means  enabled  to  sell  their  furs  here 
in  New  York,  and  actually  do  come  and  undersell  the 
American  traders.  It  is  unaccountable  that  they  should 
be  permitted  to  bring  their  furs  here  free  of  duty,  while 
we  if  we  send  any  to  the  British  Dominion  are  obliged  to 
pay  fifteen  per  cent  duty." 

If  the  duty  could  have  been  taken  off  the  woolen  goods 
and  put  on  the  furs  Mr.  Astor  probably  would  have  been 
satisfied ;  but  how  about  the  other  fellow  ? 

The  reader  doubtless  smiles  at  Mr.  Astor 's  inconsistency, 
entirely  oblivious  of  the  fact  that  history  repeats  itself  and 
that  we  of  today,  sub-consciously  perhaps,  take  the  same 
position.  The  furrier  who  worked  to  keep  the  duty  at  from 
fifteen  to  fifty  per  cent,  on  manufactured  furs  cannot  un- 
derstand why  the  government  compells  him  to  "pay  trib- 
ute" to  the  sugar  trust  by  keeping  a  tariff  on  that  product 
for  the  next  three  years ;  and  the  man  who  feels  that  he  has 
been  unfairly  dealt  with  because  the  duty  on  wool  was 
reduced  insists  that  he  ought  to  have  the  right  to  buy  his 
furs  where  he  can  get  them  the  cheapest.  From  all  this 
it  seems  as  if  the  tariff  is  not  even  a  local  issue  but  simply 
a  question  of  individual  profits,  and  that  men  uphold  or 
condemn  the  tariff  legislation  which  from  time  to  time 

disturbs  the  commercial  interests  of  the  country  according 
to  its  effect  on  their  personal  interests. 


Tariff.  71 

The  Tariff  Act  passed  by  the  United  States  Congress 
October  3,  1913,  provides  that  raw  skins  shall  be  admitted 
duty  free,  but  that  "furs  dressed  on  the  skin,  not  advanced 
further  than  dyeing,  shall  be  taxed  30  per  centum  ad  val- 
orem ;  plates  and  mats  of  dog  and  goat  skins,  10  per  centum 
ad  valorem ;  manufactures  of  furs,  further  advanced  than 
dressing  and  dyeing,  when  prepared  for  use  as  material, 
joined  or  sewed  together,  including  plates,  linings,  and 
crosses,  except  plates  and  mats  of  dog  and  goat  skins,  and 
articles  manufactured  from  fur  not  specially  provided  for 
in  this  section,  40  per  centum  ad  valorem;  articles  of 
wearing  apparel  of  every  description  partly  or  wholly 
manufactured,  composed  of,  or  of  which  hides  or  skins  of 
cattle  of  the  bovine  species,  or  of  the  dog  or  goat,  are  the 
component  material  of  chief  value,  15  per  centum  ad  valor- 
em; articles  of  wearing. apparel  of  every  description  partly 
or  wholly  manufactured,  composed  of  or  of  which  fur  is 
the  component  material  of  chief  value,  not  specially  provid- 
ed for  in  this  section,  50  per  centum  ad  valorem ;  furs  not  on 
the  skin  prepared  for  hatters'  use,  including  fur  skins 
carroted,  15  per  centum  ad  valorem." 

Because  there  is  no  duty  collected  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment on  dressed  skins  or  manufactured  furs  shipped 
into  England,  the  impression  is  rather  general  that  the 
Canadian  furriers  are  not  obliged  to  pay  a  tax  on  the 
dressed  skins  and  furs  imported  by  them  from  the  Mother 
Country.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  'Canadian  Government 
imposes  a  duty  of  twenty-five  per  cent,  on  all  manufactured 
furs,  and  seventeen  and  one-half  per  cent  on  all  dressed 
skins  brought  into  the  Dominion  from  other  parts  of  the 
British  Empire.  The  tax  on  dressed  skins  shipped  into 
Canada  from  foreign  countries  is  twenty  per  cent,  and  on 
manufactured  furs  it  is  thirty  per  cent.  Raw  skins  are 
admitted  free.  Germany,  like  England,  admits  manufac- 
tured furs,  and  dressed  as  well  as  raw  skins  duty  free, 
but  France  and  Russia  now  impose  a  tariff  on  dressed 
skins  and  manufactured  furs. 


72  Imports,  Exports  and  Restrictions. 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS. 

The  total  value  of  the  dressed  skins  and  manufactures 
thereof  shipped  into  the  United  States  from  foreign  ports 
during  the  calendar  year  1912  was  $7,973,480,  and  the 
value  of  the  raw  skins  imported  that  year  was  $17,708,663. 
The  receipts  from  Germany,  were  valued  at  $8,863,9*91; 
from  England,  at  $4,652,687 ;  from  France,  at  $3,617,752 ; 
from  Belgium,  at  $2,486,246;  and  those  from  all  other 
countries  at  $6,051,358. 

The  value  of  the  domestic  furs  and  skins  exported  dur- 
ing the  same  year  was  $16,297,938;  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
total  going  to  England  and  her  possessions,  forty  per  cent 
to  Germany,  and  ten  per  cent  to  various  other  countries. 

RESTRICTIONS. 

Full  particulars  as  to  the  restrictions  placed  upon  the 
slaughter  of  fur  seals,  and  the  introduction  of  fur  seal 
skins  and  garments  into  the  United  States  from  foreign 
parts,  appear  in  the  chapter  on  Fur  Seals.  The  govern- 
ment also  regulates  the  killing  of  arctic  foxes  on  the 
Islands  in  the  Bering  Sea,  and  from  time  to  time  has 
established  closed  seasons  for  the  protection  of  the  beaver 
and  other  animals  to  secure  the  conservation  of  some  of 
the  valuable  North  American  fur  producers ;  and  a  num- 
ber of  states  have  established  closed  seasons  for  different 
animals. 

The  Russian  government  has  recently  declared  a  closed 
season  for  Sables  in!  Siberia,  the  Chinchilla  is  being 
protected  in  Bolivia,  and  restrictions  have  been  placed 
upon  the  slaughter  of  Sea  Otters,  and  various  other  valu- 
able fur  producers  in  different  parts  of  the  world  that 
have  been  decreasing  in  numbers  because  of  a  steadily 
increasing  demand  for  their  skins.  On  the  other  hand 
the  restrictions  placed  upon  the  killing  of  a  number  of 
other  animals  have  been  removed  because  of  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  species  have  increased  under  a  protective 
policy. 

The  Canadian  authorities  were  among  the  first  to  estab- 
lish closed  seasons  for  the  conservation  of  fur  bearing 
animals  that  were  threatened  with  extermination,  and 
Otter,  Beaver,  Fisher,  Sable  and  Mink  can  only  be  taken 
at  certain  seasons  in  most  of  the  provinces  of  Canada. 


Closed  Seasons.  73 

In  Alaska  south  of  62°  north  latitude  the  Brown  Bear 
can  be  hunted  only  from  October  1  to  June  30. 

In  Iowa  the  open  season  for  Beaver,  Otter,  Mink  and 
Muskrats  is  from  November  1  to  April  30,  In  Kentucky 
the  closed  season  for  Otter,  Beaver,  Mink  and  Raccoon 
is  from  March  1  to  November  15. 

In  Maine,  Mink,  Sable  and  Fischer  can  be  taken  from 
October  15  to  April  30,  but  Muskrats  are  protected  until 
December  1. 

The  open  season  in  Michigan  for  Otter,  Fisher  and 
Sable  is  from  April  30  to  November  15,  and  for  Mink, 
Raccoon,  Skunk  and  Muskrat  from  September  1  to  Novem- 
ber 1. 

In  Minnesota,  Mink  and  Beaver  can  be  taken  only  from 
November  15  to  April  15. 

The  closed  season  for  Bear  in  Mississippi  is  from  No- 
vember 15  to  March  1. 

The  catching  or  killing  of  Beaver  and  Otter  is  pro- 
hibited in  Nebraska,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Utah  and 
Vermont. 

Sable,  Fisher  and  Otter  can  be  hunted  in  New  Hamp- 
shire from  October  15  to  March  31. 

No  one  is  allowed  to  kill  or  capture  Beaver  in  New 
York  state,  and  Mink,  Skunk  and  Muskrats  can  be  taken 
in  that  state  only  from  October  15  to  April  30. 

Pennsylvania  has  a  closed  season  for  Bears  from 
March  1  to  October  1.  and  protects  the  Beaver  at  all 
seasons. 

In  Wisconsin  the  closed  season  for  Otter  is  from  Feb- 
ruary 15  to  March  1 ;  for  Fisher,  Sable  and  Mink  from 
March  1  to  November  1;  and  for  Beaver  from  May  1 


74  Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


t    -Sg^     ^■Si    s  «=S    .I3.S    g 


I  1^1  St  |l„|l||.»llllllg£3gl|tl|lll?s 

™  ^  f^  to  C  .,  ris 


OQ    0^ 


CQ     00 


^     <5<JOicOWP     cQppqWpqpq     «     W  cq         oOOOOOOOO 


n 

s  .1  .  g„ !  iiiiiiii.||gi bill-  lis  i 


Flr  Traders  Lexicon.  75 


K 


c 


£2a.  .-  ^o^  So  >S§ 

•<a)  u'-^  q-icdc  iz^ocfi'-^  j^'^Q 


^ 

rt 

o 

^ 

; — ; 

GJ 

B 

OI 

cc 

Eh^Q 

Oh:+j  ;6=5  SeS  rt.c;oo  ^o_ 


PQ 


S 


a2a2^pq;^£cq;ffipq.e^<<|M^C^^^M'^M^cc^MP^c^O^OW^ 

i  is|      1^    g  Jl      1  |»§  ^  -s  ii  I 

^tJ'S^  ^      ^  252  "Ccsigcecelsojtm 

KP  ffl    «  gSo         6    6Se    e    6    6666 


~  re 


i  1!llJlt="«l2i  l^iy^ii  lii|.l    III! 


76  Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


OS 

t-> 

a> 

ns 

OS 

^ 

S, 

ai 

^ 

'g, 

O) 

•Ai 

TS 

J 

s 

O 

'C 

vA^ 

'S  t  «  «  2  ^  rt  5     o        ^  o 

s  as    I  g      .5^^  ^        l^'ss  o    (go 

curt  ^'S'^  bJ*-^^       ^  '3'?^iS'S         "ij'-^        P<=> 


I  ...    I  ¥  ?i..  it.  Iitl!  i 

WS>2aj  g<»<»;5o                g,T3ir't:  2/ 

i   I        I  I  llll^l        ^It^i   I.,   -is  J 

^rP^-d-aja-a,p  jiTi  A  j^      ^jP                     osa.'^.j^       ®o       oes  o.^r 

ooooo533  S^So    u            Hod6    fjQ    Ahh:;  iJW 


«  "a!  "^  § 

'Of-"  as  S  '-^ 

B'B  o -^  S  2 
o 


Fur  Traders  Lexicon.  77 


^■^  Qrt.gos       S       <j3a3.|:5i=fS>;>3  33       ©oo       000000^ 


3 


r-l      UW  IsJ      i-i  c_      VU     M      <^ 

^  o 


OQ 
<5 


I  =  ^  ^    5  $ 

«  fill     i.s i?|^^i- g Vs U sfti Is 


Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


a 
o 

.2        ?•?:     I|g 

a  w        o  ^     cs  cj  § 


OOOOOOO      PQpQpQWWM 


iS-"?  5)  o      rt  ■  ?? 

iS  1^111  §  ills «|f  lUss^  ■    lain 

I     *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  *  fe  X  «  g  g  g  glt^-Sl^l^  ^  g| 


Fur  Traders  Lexicon.  79 


I   -s^.^      ^^'^        o^fe   '^^-^  Is:^^    o_  ^t.^^^   % 
o    -s  ^  s       ^  I  ^  '^  -  .s  S  -g  g  =g  g  ^  ?q  ^-g  rt  1^  s  go  SdO  o  7^  B  -g  -^  £  -^  3 


3  "  53 

£        3  =  g  3-S-g.S§o|£2  J'SS        BMM  =  g       .3 


!:3 


2  ® 

9  J-  „  X 


lot 
3 


80  Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


3     a 


-2 

P 

C 

o 

i 

o  c 

E 

rt  p 

9) 

1 

|26 

rs 

'2'S 

bB 

rt   CU   O 

§1 

a^ 

p 

03 

03 

CO  <u   <o 

i:j  cj   o 

o  o 

fH 

p 

P 

P   P   P 

P    0) 

^3^ 

P 

'^ 

;3 

'^3;q;3 

■<  pS  pS  euo:  pSo'^oojO)  P 

o       o 


P    «^  •« 


*z       J^  <a  P  -^ 

W  SP0QP^:=3.2^«^O/-^Mr5Q^5^  P 


n3 

>-^       CD  'S  ulT  -^    <U 

43     wg        t^oo 


P^     {C  -S  i?  ^  '^  o 


1      ^ 

J^ 

^                     £3     OQ     P 

Oi          P               §  -c  Jj    2 

5  wro 

--te      -§  fe  P. 

Sleichkat 

Lowe 

Lama  (M 

Luehse 

Luchs 

Luchskat: 

Wustenlu 

Gemeiner 

Pardelluc 

Wild  Cat 

CO 

or  Badger 
Mohren-a 
for  Cat) 
Seidenaff 
Murmelti* 
a  and  Stri 

p 

52 

«H           m                  (U 

03 

a.' 

s 

apan 
(Chi 

mots 

< 

3         s 

03  X 

^-i  P 

S  '§  a3  5j       -P 


o        on  o)  Qj 


pp  00  '^'oorifw'-'f 

h^H^  H-3(^  1^  H^  ;^  H^  ^J  Q  C  ►-J 


be 


^  ri.S  P  P  1: 

^  §  §  I  -c     S  ^.S     S  « 

S    «^        Sbo    I       ^TO^Wc?  p^-ll-^    ^  %    ^ 


FvR  Traders  Lexicon.  81 


^  iS  -2    g    g    O  O    O    O    O    O    O    6  r§    o    O  =«    §D  ^.S  =i    O    ^    ,^         -^  •«  •- 


lif  til  p 


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OQ 


E  -g  ^  -^      «S  ==5  ??  S  o  Jr.  §  ^'^  fl  -«  §  .S  .2 


82  Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


OOPQ       P^  p^pupHOH^f^P.       p>p-^^00p:^0       «P:;  ^O 


■£           ^  -       S          N 

eS             ^  S3         C             '-' 

I    S       g.^  I  Jill    I    II  Jl    I  -.'^o-p.tn 

rrS         43    03                                                                                                         O;  .2  *?  ^    (D  .S               ^ 

:^«^                                                                             ai  <^  ^  B  '^  '^            '^ 

to                                             53  «                    ^o'  ;z:w3c3 


I  ^i|ii-i§|iii|.sigi  ^s 

„  —      So  pflgS^^^^'^-MsSsS  a,.'^  «  is  -S  o  ,,  ^ 

*-    a    O         c3  Bjcec3siSwS,c5fl!30u2:3ci3^cS^2  cSO)  fcS^ 

OoPQ      P^  Ph  pL,  o^  ;1h  <5  pu  piH  O  Pm  Ph  ^  Pu  K^l  O  «  ^  P^W  ^cs! 


w    I      -§  6.2 -J  P.-      S^o    lp       ^         .a^i'^^lr 

^        2pM^^^«s5§cSBSqj53^i5oo2spc3rtrtrtcgo.9«««P3'^rt 
OOOPLHPiPuCL.Q,P.pua-PLH(l,euPHPUP.PUPHP-«M«P5Mp3pi*    *    *    *    MOQ 


Fur  Traders  Lexicon.  83 


OS  fcV)      QQ  -M  o  > 


53 

-<  ^C32^<y  nSs  Art 


< 


,  wo 

Oh  C 


<u  pq 


S  c  §  a       rt  tJD'H 


a  ^^v.2|g  sS  s^  £„  s^^^So  ego's 


34 


Fur  Traders  Lexicon. 


bJD 

OH 


(J 
o 
o 


A 

I  o 

°  s 


CO  4-5     TO 


OJ   o 

ON 


bo 


PQ 


o   u,  o)  "73  e3  S 
•rr  <H  -M   H  r--! 


£.t:  -?  -£  S  S  3  ;=j  .5  p: 


pq  ^  CIS  o)  <u  cS  P^  ^3  1^  tH  v  •r-'^  2  k!::^  > 


o^ 


•Si 

O  03 


a>  ii  CO  a 


T3    03 


^ 


•o  S '5 


.5     « 


o 
S  o  S 

eS  eS  g 
CIS  to 

ce 
t> 

CO 


P!    fl    P    O 

03    CS     OJ 

.2W 


(=1 

•rH      n 


OS        fl 
S?  '^  a. 


02 


OS 

H 


ce 


P,  CJ  ^  ^    o    * 

3PQ 


o 


n 
o 

S3 
O 

5 


c6 

03    O 

tS3^3 


SJ    « 

CO  Eh 


Op 

■p  'p 
.     03   c6 

P-i  to  en 
c^  OS  Cd 
HEhH 


I 


^^1 
^.,p4S 

OS    Oi    03 

HEhEh 


H    ^    rt 
03  ^  .  rt 


bC03'ywa3c3ceo3rf3   0PoO  ^k?o3 


o-S 


o         _ 

_>  .p  f-" 
«*  ©  o 


85 


CLASSIFICATION. 

ALL  the  individuals  of  any  particular  kind  constitute  a  Species; 
closely  allied  species  are  assigned  to  a  common  Genus;  nearly- 
related  genera  are  considered  as  being  of  the  same  Family; 
families  having  a  general  similarity  in  external  appearance  are  treated 
as  belonging  to  the  same  Order;  orders  that  are  alike  in  some  impor- 
tant character  are  placed  together  in  a  Class;  and,  finally,  the  three 
classes  of  animals  possessing  a  Vertebra  are  grouped  in  one  Sui- 
Kingdom  of  the  Animal  Kingdom;  the  other  sub-kingdom  being  com- 
posed of  the  seven  classes  of  Invertebrates: 

Protoza — Cell  organisms,  such  as-  microbes,  parasites,  etc. 
Coelenterata — Sea  Anemones,  Medusas,  Coral,  Sponges,  etc. 
Echinodermata — Sea  Urchins,  Sea  Eggs. 
Vermes — Worms. 

Molluscoidea — Brachiopods,  like  snails,  etc. 
Mollusks — Bivalves — Oysters,  Clams,  etc. 

Anthropoda — Insects,  Spiders,  Scorpions,  and  Crustaceans  like 
Crabs,  etc.     This  is  the  most  advanced  class  of  the  Inver- 
tebrata,   and  the   largest   class  in   the  Animal   Kingdom, 
including  over  200,000  species. 
All  fur-bearing  animals  belong  to  the  class  Mammalia,  of  the  sub- 
kingdom  Vertebrata,  which  includes  over  3,250  species,  grouped  under 
1,000  genera,  into  150  families,  and  eleven  orders.     The  following 
charts  and  tables  show  the  proper  grouping,  and  the  relations  and 
affinities  each  to  each,  of  the   different  species,  which  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  work. 

In  the  Classification  Chart  and  Alphabetical  List  of  Species  the 
accepted  technical  designation  of  the  type  species  alone  is  generally 
given,  but  in  some  cases  the  number  of  different  varieties,  or  acknowl- 
edged sub-species,  of  the  animal  is  indicated  by  the  figures  in 
parenthesis.  The  alphabetical  list  gives  the  technical  designation  of 
each  variety  of  the  different  species  of  the  bear,  so  that  the  reader 
may  understand  the  apparent  confusion  of  terms,  where  one  writer 
refers  to  the  Grizzly  as  Ursus-horribilis,  and  another  speaks  of  the 
varieties  of  that  animal  found  in  Alaska  and  Mexico  as  Ursus- 
alacensis  and  Ursus-horriaeus  respectively. 


86 


Classification  Chart. 


Sub-Kingdom 


Class 


Order 


Vertebrata 


r  Sauropsida — Birds  and  Reptiles. 
Ichthyopsida — Amphibians  and  Fish. 

1.  Primates — Man,  and  manlike  mam- 
mals, such  as  apes,  baboons,  lemurs, 
monkeys,  etc.;  sometimes  called 
quadrumana  because  of  their  ability 
to  use  both  back  and  front  feet  as 
hands. 

2.  Chioptera — Mammals  possessing  the 
power  of  true  flight — Bats. 

3.  Insectivora  —  Insect-eating  m  a  m- 
mals,  like  the  Shrew,  Mole,  and 
Hedgehog. 

4.  Carnivora — Mammals  who  subsist 
entirely,  or  in  part,  on  the  flesh  of 
other  Vertebrates.  This  order  is 
divided  into  two  sub-orders;  the 
fin-footed  water  carnivore,  the  seals 
and  walruses,  being  known  as  Pin- 
nipedia;  and  the  land  carnivore  as 
Fissipedia. 

5.  Ungulata — Hoofed  mammals,  nearly 
all  of  whom  are  herbivorous  rumi- 
nants. 

6.  Sirenia — Purely  aquatic  mammals — 
Manatis,  Dugongs,  Northern  Sea 
Cows. 

7.  Cetacea — Fish-like  formed  mammals 
—Whales,  Porpoises,  and  Dolphins. 

8.  RODENTIA — Mammals  who  gnaw  their 
food ;  like  Eats,  Squirrels,  Rabbits, 
and  Beavers. 

9.  Edentata — Mammals  without  front 
teeth,  and  in  some  cases  entirely 
toothless;  like  Ant-Eaters,  Sloths, 
Pangolins,  and  Armadillos. 

10.  Marsupialia  —  Pouched  Mammals, 
Implacentals;  like  the  Kangaroo 
and  Opossum. 

11.  Monotremata — Egg-laying  Mammals, 
like  the   Australian   Duckbill   and 

[  Echidnos. 


Mammalia 


Classification  Chart.  87 


a 
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poo  coko^  055  obwcboiiij 

f2X3  ;;3;:5^  ^J^  -^    -r-l    «r^    .fh    .r^ 

f^f^  pHp^fi^  p^p^  p^  Pm  Ps  fk^  Pn 


CO  rrS 


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88  Classification  Chart. 


^     c.     '^g'Sb!§|         -         oil        ^  ^      «     B  .5 

II     Is     §1     i     ^ "S Is 


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Classification  Chart. 


89 


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90  Classification  Chart. 


!z     .SmqhSo3.S^2        Sort  OQ.SS 


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Classification  Chart,  91 


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92  Classification  Chart. 


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S  ^opmh^oSSS^S     P  o     plh  how     <^WOcc 


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93 


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94  Classification  Chart. 


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THE  MAMMALIA. 

All  Fur  Bearing  animals  suckle  their  young  and  con- 
sequently belong  to  the  class  Mammalia,  of  which  Cuvier 
says: 

"The  Mammalia  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  not  only  because  it  is  the  class  to  which  man 
himself  belongs,  but  also  because  it  is  that  which  enjoys 
the  most  numerous  faculties,  the  most  delicate  sensations, 
the  most  varied  powers  of  motion;  and  in  which  all  the 
different  qualities  seem  combined  in  order  to  produce  a 
more  perfect  degree  of  intelligence.  It  is  also  the  most 
fertile  in  resources,  most  susceptible  of  perfection,  and 
least  the  slave  of  instinct. 

"As  their  quantity  of  respiration  is  moderate  Mammals 
are  designed  in  general  for  walking  on  the  earth  with 
vigorous  and  continued  steps.  The  forms  of  the  articu- 
lations of  their  skeletons  are  consequently  strictly  defined. 

"The  upper  jaw  in  all  of  these  animals  is  fixed  to  the 
cranium;  the  lower  is  formed  of  two  pieces  articu- 
lated by  a  projecting  condyle  to  a  fixed  temporal  bone; 
the  neck  consists  of  seven  vertebrae,  one  single  species 
which  has  nine  excepted ;  the  anterior  ribs  are  attached  be- 
fore, by  cartilage,  to  a  sternum  consisting  of  several  ver- 
tical pieces;  their  anterior  extremity  commences  in  a 
shoulder-blade  that  is  not  articulated,  but  simply  sus- 
pended in  the  flesh,  often  resting  on  the  sternum  by  means 
of  an  intermediate  bone,  called  a  clavicle.  This  extremity 
is  continued  by  an  arm,  a  fore-arm,  and  a  hand,  the  latter 
being  composed  of  two  ranges  of  small  bones,  called  the 
carpus,  of  another  range  called  the  metacarpus,  and  of 
the  fingers,  each  of  which  consists  of  two  or  three  bones, 
termed  phalanges. 

The  hind  limb,  according  to  Lydecker,  differs  from  the 
fore-limb  "in  that  the  innominate  or  haunch-bones  which 
together  form  the  pelvis,  are  connected  by  an  immovable 
bony  union  with  the  sacral  region  of  the  vertebral  column. 
The  thigh-bone  or  femur,  corresponding  to  the  humerous 
of  the  arm,  articulates  with  a  cavity  in  the  innominate 


112  The  Mammals. 

termed  the  acetabulum.  The  leg  has  two  parallel  bones 
articulating  with  the  lower  end  of  the  thigh-bone  or 
femur;  of  w^hich  the  larger  or  tibia,  occupying  the  inner 
side  of  the  limb,  corresponds  to  the  radius  of  the  fore- 
arm, while  the  smaller  outer  bone  or  fibula,  represents  the 
ulna.  The  ankle,  or  tarsus,  corresponds  to  the  carpus  in 
the  fore-limb,  and  likewise  consists  of  two  transverse  rows 
of  small  bones.  Two  bones  of  the  uppermost  row,  viz.  the 
calcaneum  or  heel-bone,  and  the  astragalus  or  ankle-bone, 
are  specially  modified.  In  the  foot  proper  the  bones  cor- 
respond with  those  of  the  hand;  those  representing  the 
metacarpals  being,  however,  termed  metatarsals. 

''Most  of  the  mammals  have  five  fingers  and  toes,  or 
digits,  on  each  foot  or  hand,  but  in  some  cases  there  is  a 
tendency  to  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  digits;  cattle 
and  deer  having  only  tw^o,  corresponding  to  the  third  and 
fourth  of  the  typical  series  of  five ;  while  in  the  horse  only 
a  single  digit  remains,  which  in  the  fore-limb  corresponds 
to  the  middle  or  third  finger  of  the  human  hand,  and  in 
the  hind-limb  to  the  middle  toe. 

"Almost  all  Mammals)  when  adult  have  both  jaws 
provided  w^ith  a  series  of  teeth  varying  greatly  in  num- 
ber and  structure  in  the  dijfferent  groups.  These  teeth 
are  almost  invariably  fixed  in  separate  sockets;  and  while 
the  front  teeth  have  but  a  single  root  or  fang,  the  side  or 
cheek-teeth  very  generally  have  two  or  more  such  roots, 
each  of  which  occupies  a  separate  division  of  the  socket. 
In  all  cases  the  teeth  are  fixed  in  their  sockets  merely  by 
the  aid  of  soft  tissues  connected  with  the  gum  and  are 
never  welded  to  the  jaws  by  a  deposit  of  bone.  Very  gen- 
erally there  is  a  sharply-marked  line  of  division,  termed 
the  neck,  between  the  root,  or  portion  of  the  tooth  im- 
planted in  the  jaw,  and  the  crown  or  exposed  portion. 

"In  most  of  those  Mammals  in  which  the  teeth  of  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  jaw  differ  in  structure  from  one  an- 
other, there  are  two  distinct  sets  of  teeth  developed  dur- 
ing life.  The  first  of  the  two  includes  the  milk  or  baby 
teeth,  which  are  generally  shed  at  a  comparatively  early 
age.  They  are  of  small  size  and  few  in  number,  and  are 
finally  succeeded  by  the  larger  and  more  numerous  perm- 
anent set,  which  remain  during  the  rest  of  life,  unless 
previously  worn  out. 


The  ^Mammals.  113 

''Those  Mammals  in  which  the  permanent  teeth 
differ  from  one  another  in  form  in  different  regions  of  the 
jaw,  we  are  enabled  from  their  position,  and  also  from 
their  relations  to  the  temporary  series  of  milk-teeth,  to 
divide  into  four  distinct  groups.  Taking  one  side 
of  the  upper  jaw  of  the  dog  we  find  the  front 
bone,  or  premazilla,  carrying  a  small  number  of  simple 
cutting  teeth,  termed  incisors.  Behind  these  teeth,  from 
which  it  is  generally  separated  by  a  longer  or  shorter  gap, 
there  is  a  tooth  with  a  simple  and  often  conical  croAvn, 
which,  like  the  incisors,  is  inserted  in  the  jaw  by  a  single 
root.  This  tooth,  which  is  usually  larger  than  the  in- 
cisors, is  termed  the  tusk,  or  canine  tooth,  and  in  the  wild 
boar  and  most  Carnivorous  Mammals  attains  a  very  large 
size.  It  can  always  be  distinguished  from  the  incisors  by 
the  fact  that  it  is  implanted  in  the  maxilla,  or  second  bone 
of  the  jaw,  or  at  least  on  the  line  of  junction  between  that 
bone  and  the  premaxilla.  Behind  the  canine  we  have  a 
series  of  teeth,  which  may  be  as  many  as  seven,  with  more 
complicated  crowns,  and  except  the  first,  inserted  in  li:e 
jaw  by  two  or  more  roots.  This  series  may  be  collectively 
known  as  the  cheek  teeth;  but  they  may  be  divided  into 
two  minor  groups  according  as  to  whether  they  are  pre- 
ceded by  milk-teeth  or  not.  In  the  dog  the  four  teeth  im- 
mediately behind  the  canine,  w^ith  the  exception  of  the 
first,  are  the  vertical  successors  of  milk-teeth,  and  are 
known  as  premolars ;  while  the  two  hindmost  teeth  v/hich 
have  no  such  temporary  predecessors,  are  known  as  true 
molars,  or  molars.  In  the  lower  jaw  the  tooth,  u«;ually 
larger  than  the  others,  which  bites  in  front  of  the  upper 
canine  is  the  lower  canine.  In  advance  of  this  tooth  are 
the  incisors,  and  behind  it  the  pre-molars  and  molarg,  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another  in  the  same  manner  as  are 
the  corresponding  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw. 

''With  the  exception  of  the  Pouched  Mammals,  there 
are  in  practically  all  the  Mammals  with  teeth  of  different 
kinds,  never  more  than  three  incisors,  one  canine,  four 
premolars,  and  three  molars  on  eithei  side  of  each  jaw; 
80  that  the  total  number  of  teeth  on  both  sides  of  the  two 
jaws  is  not  more  than  forty-four. 

"In  regard  to  the  external  covering,  hairs  are  always 
present  on  some  portion  of  the  body  during  some  period 


114  The  Mammals. 

of  life.  In  the  whales  these  hairs  may,  however,  be  re- 
duced to  a  few  bristles  in  the  region  of  the  mouth,  which 
disappear  when  the  animal  attains  maturity.  Mammals 
never  develop  that  modified  kind  of  hair-structure  known 
as  feathers,  which  are  peculiar  to  Birds.  The  body  may, 
however,  be  covered  with  overlapping  scales,  like  those 
so  common  in  Reptiles,  but  this  occurs  only  in  the  pan- 
golins, or  scaly  ant-eaters  of  India  and  Africa.  The  tail 
of  the  common  rat  is  an  example  of  a  part  of  the  body 
covered  with  scales,  having  their  edges  in  opposition;  but 
in  both  these  instances  hairs  are  mingled  with  the  scales. 
Still  rarer  than  scales  are  bony  plates,  developed  in  the 
true  skin.  At  the  present  day  these  structures  are  only 
met  with  among  the  well-known  armadillos  of  South 
America,  which  are  furnished  with  bucklers  and  trans- 
verse bands  of  these  bony  plates,  and  are  in  some  cases 
able  to  roll  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  presenting  on  all 
sides  an  impenetrable  coat  of  mail.  Between  the  plates 
of  the  armour  of  the  Armadillos  hairs  are  always  devel- 
oped, and  in  one  species  these  are  so  abundant  as  to  com- 
pletely hide  the  plates  themselves,  and  render  the  gen- 
eral appearance  that  of  an  ordinary  hairy  mammal. 

"The  use  of  hair  is  mainly  to  protect  the  body  from 
cold,  and  thus  to  aid  in  the  maintenance  of  a  uniform  high 
temperature;  and  when  hairs  are  absent,  we  find  this 
function  performed  by  a  niore  or  less  thick  fatty  layer 
beneath  the  skin,  which,  when  it  is  excessively  developed, 
as  in  the  whales,  is  known  as  blubber.  To  compensate  for 
the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  winter  and 
summer.  Mammals  which  inhabit  the  colder  regions  of 
the  globe  develop  a  much  thicker  coat  of  hair  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter  season,  of  which  we  have  an  ex- 
cellent example  in  the  horse.  In  some  Mammals,  such  as 
the  hare  and  cat,  the  body  is  covered  with  only  one  kind 
of  hair ;  but  in  other  cases,  as  in  the  fur-seals,  there  is  one 
kind  of  long  and  somewhat  coarse  hair,  which  appears  at 
the  surface,  and  another  of  a  softer  and  finer  nature,  which 
forms  the  thick  and  warm  under-fur.  This  under-fur  is 
greatly  developed  in  Mammals  of  all  groups  inhabiting 
Tibet,  where  it  is  locally  known  as  ''pashm";  and  it  is 
this  pashm  of  the  goat  of  these  regions  which  affords  the 
materials  for  the  celebrated  Kashmir  shawls.     Curiously 


115 

enough,  too,  animals  which  usually  do  not  develop  pashm 
almost  immediately  tend  to  its  production  when  taken  to 
the  Tibetan  region,  as  is  notably  the  case  with  dogs.  Less 
frequently  the  hair  of  the  body  takes  the  form  of  stiff 
bristles,  as  on  the  pig;  and  still  more  rarely  this  thicken- 
ing is  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  spines,  of 
which  we  have  the  best  instances  in  the  porcupine  and 
hedgehog,  belonging,  it  should.be  borne  in  mind,  to  dis- 
tinct orders. 

"The  solid  horns  of  the  rhinoceroses,  and  the  hollow 
horny  sheaths  of  cattle  and  antelopes  are  very  similar  in 
their  nature  to  hairs,  and  may  indeed  be  compared  to 
masses  of  hair  welded  together  into  solid  structures. 

**  Mammals  differ  from  Pish,  Amphibeans  and  Eeptiles 
in  having  warm  blood  which  is  propelled  from  a  four 
chambered  heart  through  a  double  circulating  system; 
one  part  causing  the  blood  to  pass  through  the  lungs  to 
take  in  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  the 
other  serving  to  supply  the  freshly  oxygenized  blood  to 
the  various  organs  and  members  of  the  body;  the  blood 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  body  being  propelled  from  the 
heart  by  a  single  vessel  known  as  the  aorta,  which  passes 
over  the  left  branch  of  the  wind  pipe. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  egg  laying  Monotremes, 
Mammals  are  invariably  born  in  a  living  condition,  and 
whether  they  live  on  the  land  or  in  the  water  breathe  air 
by  means  of  lungs  suspended  in  the  chest.  As  a  rule  they 
have  the  two  pair  of  limbs  characteristic  of  vertebrates, 
but  occasionally,  as  in  the  whales,  the  hinder  pair  may  be 
wanting.  In  some  cases,  like  the  kangaroos  and  jumping 
m.ice,  the  hind  limbs  are  enormously  elongated  and  pro- 
gression is  affected  by  means  of  leaps  and  bounds.  The 
opposite  extreme  of  limb  structure  is  shown  in  the  bats; 
whose  hind  limbs  retain  their  normal  structure,  while  the 
fore  limbs  are  enormously  elongated  to  afford  support  for 
a  leathery  wing  like  structure,  by  means  of  which  these 
strangely  modified  creatures  are  enabled  to  fly  in  the  air 
with  the  same  ease  and  swiftness  as  the  birds.  In  the  true 
seals,  the  hind  limbs  are  directed  backward  to  form  with 
the  tail  a  kind  of  rudder,  while  the  fore  limbs  are  short- 
ened so  as  to  form  paddles  for  swimming,  and  as  before 
stated,  in  the  completely  aquatic  mammals  the  hind  limbs 
are  entirelv  wanting. 


116  The  Bear  Family. 


CARNIVORA. 

Flesh-eating  mammals  are  designated  as  Carnivores, 
although  some  of  them  are  omnivorous  rather  than 
strictly  carnivorous.  They  are  all  more  or  less  beasts 
of  prey,  and  their  mental  system  as  well  as  their  struc- 
ture shows  the  results  of  their  predatory  habits. 

The  bones  in  all  the  species  of  this  order  are  compara- 
tively slender  but  very  strong;  as  a  rule  they  have 
thirteen  dorsal  vertebrae,  and  with  a  few  exceptions  like 
the  cat  and  dog,  they  have  five  toes  armed  with  claws, 
the  thumb  or  great  toe  not  being  opposable  to  the  others 
so  as  to  enable  them  to  grasp  any  object. 

The  jaws  of  the  Carnivores  are  short  and  stout,  and 
the  head  of  the  lower  jaw  is  usually  placed  in  a  deep 
and  narrow  socket  so  that  little  grinding  motion  is  pos- 
sible, the  movements  of  the  jaw  being  confined  to  a 
vertical  plane.  The  enamel  covered  teeth  are  fitted  for 
cutting  rather  than  grinding.  There  are  six  incisors  in 
each  jaw,  the  lateral  ones  being  the  largest.  The  canines 
are  strong  and  conical  and  in  some  cases  enormously 
developed.  The  number  of  molars  varies,  but  the  typical 
number  is  four  premolars  and  three  molars  on  each  side  of 
each  jaw,  one  of  them  on  each  side  of  each  jaw  usually 
being  converted  into  a  sectorial  tooth  that  has  a  com- 
pressed cutting  edge,  and  with  its  fellow  of  the  opposite 
jaw  acts  like  a  pair  of  shears. 

The  alimentary  tract  of  the  Carnivores  is  compara- 
tively short  and  simplified,  and  they  have  no  vermiform 
appendix.  With  the  exception  of  taste  their  senses  are 
highly  developed.  As  is  shown  by  our  classification 
chart  they  are  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  the  Fissipedia 
and  the  Pinnipedia.  The  Fissipedia  are  divided,  by 
some  authorities  into  three  groups,  of  which  the  Bear, 
the  Dog  and  the  Cat  are  the  respective  types.  Most  of 
the  varieties  of  the  first  two  walk  on  the  sole  of  the  foot, 
and  are  known  as  Plantigrades,  while  the  majority  of 
the  other  group  are  called  digitigrades  because  they 
walk  on  the  ends  of  the  toes. 


The  Bear  Family.  117 


THE  BEAR  FAMILY. 
(Ursidae.) 

All  members  of  the  Bear  family  have  a  marked  resem- 
blance to  one  another,  and  are  of  heavy  massive  build, 
with  thick  limbs,  extremely  short  tails,  and  the  five 
toes  on  each  foot  armed  with  powerful  fixed  claws. 
Their  ordinary  gait  is  slow  and  measured,  and  they  plant 
the  foot  squarely  on  the  ground  so  the  impression  is  very 
much  like  that  made  by  the  human  being;  this  feature 
being  more  marked  in  the  case  of  the  Bear  than  in  that 
of  other  animals  of  the  plantigrade  order.  Like  the  dogs 
they  have  two  pairs  of  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw 
and  three  in  the  lower,  but  the  shape  of  the  teeth  is  dif- 
ferent. The  Bears  are  evidently  descended  from  dog- 
likie  animals,  but  the  majority  of  them  subsist  on  a  vege- 
table diet  or  on  insects  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  on 
flesh.  All  Bears  are  notoriously  deficient  in  hearing  and 
have  poor  sight,  but  their  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute. 
They  differ  in  many  important  particulars  from  all  other 
carnivorous  animals,  and  are  rightly  classed  as  a  separate 
family  with  a  comparatively  small  number  of  species. 
The  fur  of  the  Bear  is  always  coarse,  and  generally  long, 
thick  and  shaggy,  and  of  one  color  all  over  the  body  if 
we  except  the  white  collar  sometimes  found  around  the 
neck  of  the  black  and  the  brown  Bear.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  peculiar  species  all  Bears  have  forty-two 
teeth,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  bare,  while  the  small 
ears  are  thickly  haired. 

BROWN  BEAR. 

The  Brown  Bear  (Ursus-arctos),  is  the  best-known 
member  of  the  Bear  family.  The  Grizzly  Bear  of  North 
America,  the  Syrian  Bear,  the  Isabellan  Bear  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  numerous  others  are  really  local  races 
of  the  Brown  Bear  rather  than  distinct  species  of  their 
kind. 

The  Brown  Bear  is  an  inhabitant  of  almost  the  whole 
of  Europe  and  of  Asia  to  the  north  of  the  Himalayas ;  and 


118  Carnivora  Fissipedio. 

is  also  comparatively  common  in  manj^  parts  of  Scan- 
dinavia, Hungary  and  Kussia.  In  Kamschatka  it  is  very 
plentiful  and  attains  to  large  dimensions. 

The  Brown  or  Common  Bear  of  Europe  has  a  convex 
forehead;  on  the  cubs  the  fur  is  woolly,  but  grows 
smoother  with  age  and  changes  from  its  original  whitish 
color  to  varying  shades  of  brown,  or  a  greyish  hue,  in 
some  specimens  bordering  on  the  silver.  All  the  young 
havei  a  white  collar  which  in  some  varieties  remains 
through  life.  There  is  also  considerable  variation  in 
height,  without  any  fixed  relation  to  age  and  sex.  This 
animal  inhabits  the  lofty  mountains  and  great  forests  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  lodges  high  up  in  the  trees;  the 
coupling  season  is  in  June,  and  the  young  are  produced 
in  January.  When  young  the  flesh  of  this  animal  is 
esteemed  a  delicacy  and  the  paws  are  good  eating  at  all 
ages. 

The  favorite  haunts  of  this  species  are  wooded,  hilly 
districts,  and  in  the  higher  latitudes  they  hibernate  regu- 
larly in  the  winter.  They  are  unsociable  animals,  but  occa- 
sionally a  male  and  female  will  be  seen  together  accom- 
panied by  their  cubs.  In  some  sections  they  kill  and  eat 
other  animals,  but  generally  speaking  the  Brown  Bears 
are  insect  and  vegetable  feeders.  In  Kamschatka  they 
are  said  to  subsist  largely  on  salmon.  In  pursuing  the 
salmon  a  Bear  will  walk  slowly  into  the  water  to  a  depth 
of  about  eighteen  inches,  and  facing  down  stream  will 
wait  motionless  for  its  prey;  the  careless  fish  swimming 
up  the  river  mistakes  the  Bear's  legs  for  tree  stumps,  and 
so  falls  an  unconscious  victim  to  the  lightning  stroke  of 
the  Bear's  forepaw. 

The  Brown  Bear  is  uncouth  in  appearance  and  move- 
ment, but  it  can  travel  pretty  fast  in  a  shambling  kind 
of  a  gallop.  It  never  voluntarily  attacks  a  human  being, 
but  when  angered  it  is  capable  of  inflicting  terrible  in- 
juries when  thrashing  around  with  its  paws.  From  its 
anatomical  construction  there  would  seem  to  be  little 
foundation  for  the  stories  told  of  its  hugging  powers. 
Is  is  easily  tamed  and  taught  to  perform  tricks.  It  is  re- 
markable for  its  longevity,  some  of  the  species  having 
been  known  to  live  over  forty  years,  and  a  case  is  re- 
corded of  a  female  Brown  Bear  giving  birth  to  a  cub  at 
the  age  of  thirty-two  years. 


The  Bear  Family.  119 

GRIZZLY  BEAR. 

The  largest  of  all  Bears,  the  Grizzly  (Ursus-horribilis), 
is  a  native  of  western  North  America,  where  it  ranges 
from  Mexico  to  Alaska.  In  the  northern  part  of  its  range 
it  hibernates,  but  in  the  south  it  remains  active  all  win- 
ter. The  Silver  Tip,  Barren  Ground,  Roachback,  Cinna- 
mon and  Isabella  are  all  varieties  of  the  Grizzly;  and  its 
differences  of  form  are  as  marked  as  its  wide  range  in 
color;  some  of  the  species  have  a  well-defined  hump  on 
the  back  which  is  entirely  wanting  in  others,  and  there 
is  also  a  wide  variation  in  the  width  of  the  sole  of  the 
hind  feet.  Accounts  vary  greatly  as  to  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  Grizzly,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  ani- 
mal sometimes  attains  to  thirteen  feet  in  length,  and  1,100 
pounds  in  weight,  but  the  average  weight  of  a  large  male 
Grizzly  is  nearer  800  pounds. 

The  Grizzly  feeds  on  flesh,  nuts  and  acorns.  It  is  a 
poor  climber,  but  has  prodigious  strength;  one  of  the 
species  has  been  known  to  break  the  neck  of  a  tall  bison 
with  a  single  blow  of  its  paw,  and  another  to  have  car- 
ried off  over  rough  ground  a  male  Wapiti  weighing 
over  1,000  pounds.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  says,  ''It  will  kill 
several  deer  and  leave  them  untouched  on  the  ground  at 
daybreak  the  following  morning.'*  It  is  credited  with 
extreme  ferocity  towards  man. 

BLACK  BEAR. 

As  the  Grizzly  is  the  largest  so  the  Black  Bear  (Ursus- 
americanus),  is  the  smallest  member  of  the  American 
Bear  family.  It  seldom  exceeds  five  feet  in  length,  and 
its  fur  is  smoother,  glossier  and  less  shaggy  than  that  of 
either  the  Brown  or  Grizzly  Bear.  It  is  said  by  Col.  E. 
D.  C.  Alexander,  that  the  Black  Bear  formerly  frequented 
''all  the  mountains,  the  thickets  of  the  vast  plains,  and 
every  creek,  river  and  bay  bottom,  from  Labrador  and 
Canada  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  At  present  its  habitat  is 
confined  to  the  mountains  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  and  the  Great  Lakes  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  if  we  except  the  few  that  are  still  found  in  the 
dense  thickets  of  the  Colorado,  Trinity  and  Brazos 
Rivers." 


120  Cabnivora  Fissipedio. 

When  full  grown,  the  American  Black  Bear  will  stand 
about  three  feet  high  and  weigh  fully  600  pounds.  It  feeds 
on  frogs,  fish,  turtles,  the  smaller  rodents,  insects,  honey, 
berries,  roots  and  vegetables,  with  a  decided  preference 
for  a  frugiverous  diet;  but  some  writers  claim  that  it  is 
gradually  growing  more  carnivorous  and  bolder,  and  cite 
in  proof  of  this  contention  a  growing  disposition  to  raid 
bam  yards  and  slay  and  eat  poultry,  sheep,  pigs  and 
even  calves.  The  Black  Bear  is  an  excellent  swimmer 
and  a  good  climber,  but  cannot  go  up  into  the  tree  tops, 
or  out  upon  the  branches,  because  of  its  weight. 

The  Black  Bear  hibernates  regularly  in  winter;  but 
the  male  remains  active  as  long  as  he  can  find  an  abund- 
ance of  food,  while  the  female  always  seeks  shelter  as  soon 
as  cold  weather  comes  in  a  den  excavated  under  the 
root  of  a  fallen  tree,  or  beneath  a  pile  of  logs,  with  a  few 
bushes  and  leaves  scooped  together  for  a  bed.  Some- 
times the  den  is  a  great  hole  dug  into  the  side  of  a  knoll. 
The  young,  who  are  usually  born  in  January  or  February, 
number  from  two  to  four  to  a  litter.  If  the  indications 
point  to  a  severe  winter  and  there  is  a  scarcity  of  food 
these  animals  will  take  great  pains  to  make  a  comfort- 
able nest;  but  when  the  weather  permits  them  to  stay 
out  late  they  do  not  fix  up  their  dens  at  all;  but  simply 
crawl  into  any  convenient  shelter,  letting  the  snow  com- 
plete a  covering  which  forms  into  an  icy  wall  as  their 
breath  condenses  and  freezes  into  it,  increasing  in  thick- 
ness and  extent  day  by  day  until  they  could  not  escape 
from  their  icy  cell,  even  if  they  would,  before  they  are 
liberated  by  the  sun,  in  April  or  May. 

The  Himalayan  Black  Bear,  with  its  pure  white  chin, 
long  side  whiskers,  and  large  ears,  is  unquestionably  the 
handsomest  representative  of  the  Bear  Family.  The 
Malay  Sun  Bear  is  the  smallest,  ugliest  and  most  ill  tem- 
pered of  the  lot,  but  in  size  the  Japanese  Black  Bear 
approaches  it  closely. 

Among  the  peculiar  species  we  find  the  Spectacled 
3ears  of  South  America,  which  are  distinguished  by  their 
very  glossy  jet-black  coats,  small  ears,  long  feet  and  the 
imperfect  circles  of  white  around  their  eyes. 


The  Bear  Family.  121 


POLAR  BEAR. 

The  Polar  Bear  (Ursus-maritimus),  has  a  smaller  and 
more  elongated  head,  longer  neck,  shorter  ears,  and 
smaller  teeth  than  other  Bears ;  and  is  also  distinguished 
by  the  white  coat  which  it  retains  all  the  year  round. 
In  this  respect  it  differs  from  other  white  mammals,  who 
generally  exchange  their  winter  dress  for  one  of  darker 
color  in  the  summer.  This  animal  is  one  of  the  largest 
members  of  the  Bear  family.  In  attacking  its  enemies 
it  does  not  hug  or  strike  with  its  claws  like  the  others 
of  its  kind,  but  bites;  stories  of  its  ferocity  have  how- 
ever been  greatly  exaggerated,  for  unless  rendered  fierce 
by  hunger  or  an  attack  it  is  rarely  known  to  molest  a 
man.  The  most  dangerous  and  aggressive  of  the  species 
is  the  large  male  of  a  yellowish  or  dirty  white  tinge.  A 
large,  fat  male  Polar  Bear  will  sometimes  weigh  from 
600  to  700  pounds,  and  measure  as  much  as  nine  feet. 
The  speed  of  the  Polar  Bear  is  considerable,  but  Indians 
have  been  known  to  overtake  and  kill  it  after  a  fair  chase. 

The  Polar  Bear  is  found  in  the  Arctic  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  generally  lives  on  the  coasts  of  islands 
surrounded  by  ice  although  it  is  often  found  on  ice 
fields  far  out  at  sea.  Its  principal  food  consists  of  the 
flesh  of  Seals  and  Walruses,  but  it  also  eats  sea  weed, 
grass,  lichens  and  smaller  fish. 

In  the  Hudson's  Bay  district  the  females  proceed  to 
hibernate  for  the  purpose  of  producing  their  young  about 
the  end  of  September  and  reappear  in  the  spring,  two 
cubs  generally  being  produced  at  a  birth.  Hibernation 
takes  place  on  some  distant  island.  The  males  accompany 
their  consorts  to  their  resting  place,  but  leave  them 
there,  while  they  return  to  the  coast  to  hunt  throughout 
the  winter. 

The  fur  of  the  Black,  Brown  and  Grizzly  Bear  is  made 
into  muffs  and  neck  pieces  as  well  as  sleigh  robes  and 
rugs ;  but  the  skin  of  the  Polar  Bear  is  only  used  for  floor 
rugs. 


122 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


Polar  Bear, 


Grizzly  Bear. 


Brown  Bear. 


Black  Bear. 


The  Cat  Family.  123 


THE  CAT  FAMILY. 


"Of  all  the  Carnivora,  the  Cats  are  the  most  completely 
and  powerfully  armed.  Their  short  and  round  muzzles, 
short  jaws,  and  particularly  their  retractile  nails,  whi'»h 
raised  perpendicularly  and  hidden  between  the  toes  by 
the  action  of  an  elastic  ligament  when  at  rest  lose  neither 
point  nor  edge,  render  them  formidable  animals. 

' '  They  have  two  false  molars  above,  and  two  below.  Their 
superior  carnivorous  tooth  has  three  lobes  and  a  blunted 
heel  on  the  inside,  the  inferior  has  two  pointed  and  trench- 
ant lobes  without  any  heel.  They  have  a  very  small  canine 
tooth  above,  without  anything  below  to  correspond.'' 

The  species  are  all  similar  in  form,  but  vary  greatly  in 
size,  length  of  hair  and  color. 

All  the  Felidae  have  five  digits  on  the  fore  feet,  and 
four  on  the  hind  ones;  when  ready  to  strike  they  crouch 
and  spring  upon  their  victim  which  they  fasten  ''by 
the  deadly  grip  of  the  well  armed  jaw,  and  the  united 
action  of  eighteen  fully  extended  piercing  claws.  The 
fore-limbs  are  endowed  with  a  freedom  almost  equal 
to  that  of  the  Primates,  and  can  be  bent,  extended  and 
turned  with  the  utmost  ease  and  swiftness,  and  deal  a 
blow^  as  readily  as  the  fists  of  a  man."  Although  cats 
possess  only  thirty  teeth — twelve  less  than  the  dog — 
they  have  every  variety  of  tooth  needed  by  a  carnivorous 
mammal.  Their  eyes  are  large,  but  the  pupil  possesses  a 
power  of  contraction  under  the  influence  of  sunlight, 
that  enables  some  species  to  reduce  it  to  a  vertical  slit 
and  others  to  a  small  round  aperture. 

The  European  Wild  Cat  (Felis-catus)  is  now  extinct 
in  England  where  it  was  very  common  at  one  time,  but 
it  is-  still  found  in  Scotland,  Southern  Russia,  Turkey, 
Greece,  Hungary,  Germany,  Spain,  Dalmatia,  Switzer- 
land and  in  some  parts  of  Asia.  During  the  middle 
ages  its  fur  was  commonly  used  for  trimmings,  and  a 
canon  of  the  year  1227  forbade  any  abbess  or  nun  to 
wear  more  costly  fur  than  that  of  lambs  or  cats.  W.  A. 
Lockington  says:  ''This  cat  is  larger  and  more 
strongly  built  than  any  domestic  cat,  and  has  a  stouter 


124 


Carnivoba  Fissipedia. 


and  shorter  head,  and  a  thick  tail  which  does  not  taper. 
It  is  usually  yellowish  grey  in  color  with  a  dark  streak 
along  the  back,  numerous  darkish  stripes  down  the  sides 
and  across  the  limbs,  and  has  black  rings  on  the  tail.  It  is  a 
very  savage  animal  even  as  a  kitten,  and  sometimes 
attains  a  length  of  more  than  three  feet  from  tip  to 
tip.  The  female,  who  carries  her  young  sixty-eight  days, 
makes  her  nest  in  the  hollows  of  trees  or  clefts  of  rocks, 
or  even  uses  the  deserted  nest  of  some  large  bird.'^  Some 
naturalists  claim  that  the  domestic  cat  is  descended,  at 
least  in  part,   from  this  species,  but  the  Egyptian  Cat 


The  Egyptian  Cat. 


(Pelis-caliata) ,  whose  range  extends  throughout  Africa 
and  also  into  Asia,  is  probably  the  ancestor  of  most  of 
the  varieties  of  the  Felis-domestica.  The  color  of  this 
species  varies  from  a  pale  red  to  grey,  always  marked 
with  more  or  less  obscure  stripes  on  the  body  and  more 
distinct  ones  on  the  hind  limbs,  the  tail  is  ringed  and 
has  a  black  tip ;  it  has  been  known  by  different 
names  at  different  times,  and  probably  the  Felis-chaus 
of  Africa  really  belongs  to  this  species,  as  the  hinder 
parts  of  its  feet  are  sometimes  black. 


The  Cat  Family.  125 


THE  DOMESTIC  CAT. 

Not  every  Domestic  Cat  is  a  house  cat,  but  all  House 
Cats  belong  to  Domestic  species.  While  the  skins  of  a 
number  of  varieties  of  domesticated  cats  who  live  out 
doors  are  extensively  used  by  furriers,  the  skin  of  the  House 
Cat  is  of  little  commercial  value. 

The  House  Cat  of  our  homes  is  one  of  the  animals  that 
has  become  attached  to  civilization  all  over  the  world. 
There  are  many  species  in  the  Cat  Family,  but  the  House 
Cat  is  the  one  familiar  to  us  all.  We  have  all  played  with 
it  in  childhood  or  watched  it  roll  the  spools  or  grand- 
mother's ball  of  yarn  across  the  kitchen  floor,  and  have 
heard  it  purr  contentedly  before  the  fire,  or  seen  it  basking 
in  the  sunshine  on  the  porch  of  the  old  homestead.  We 
have  all  been  reminded  at  times  by  the  sting  of  the  sharp 
<jlaws  hidden  in  the  velvet  paw^^,  and  its  cruelty  to  the 
mouse  within  its  grasp,  of  the  inherent  treacherous,  savage 
nature  that  lies  dormant  under  its  apparently  gentle 
disposition.  The  House  Cat  makes  us  think  of 
home  and  the  fireside,  just  as  the  dog  recalls  to  the  mem- 
ory of  most  of  us,  the  days  in  camp  and  tramps  through 
the  woods,  or  walks  along  the  shore.  The  Cat  is  not  as 
intelligent  or  affectionate  as  the  dog.  It  is  attached  to 
the  house  and  its  surroundings,  rather  than  the  individual. 
A  dog  will  follow  his  master  to  the  ends  of  the  earth 
and  if  needs  be  die  in  his  defense,  but  the  cat  will  fly 
from  him  upon  the  first  approach  of  danger.  The  one 
is  a  faithful,  dumb  friend,  upon  whose  loyalty  we  can 
always  depend,  the  other  is  a  sleek,  unctous  brute  time 
-server. 

The  House  Cat  though  naturally  timid  will  fight 
desperately  in  its  own  defense.  No  one  who  has  lain 
awake  listening  to  the  caterwauling  of  this  animal,  rang- 
ing in  volume  of  sound  from  the  low  plaintive  cry  of  an 
infant,  to  the  loud,  discordant  tones  of  an  enraged  virago, 
will  doubt  that  there  is  a  cat  in  every  well  regulated 
household — and  some  to  spare. 

This  animal  begins  to  produce  at  the  end  of  the  first 
year;  bringing  forth  four  to  six  young  ones,  two  or  even 
three  times  a  year. 


126  CarNIVORA  FlSSIPEDIA. 

There  are  some  varieties  of  House  Cats  like  the 
Angora  species  and  the  tailless  Manx  Cat  that  for 
various  reasons  have  a  commercial  value.  Among 
other  singular  breeds  may  be  mentioned  the  Mombas  Cat 
of  Africa,  which  has  short,  stiff,  close-lying  hairs  instead 
of  fur.  The  Persian,  believed  by  some  to  be  descended 
from  the  Asiatic  Cat,  is  the  largest  variety  of  Domestic 
Cat,  and  the  Diminutive  Paraguay  Cat  is  the  smallest 
representative  of  the  species. 


Manx  Cat. 

The  skin  of  the  Domestic  Cat  like  that  of  other  cats  is 
much  thicker  at  the  head  than  on  the  rest  of  the  body, 
as  a  natural  protection  to  the  males  in  fighting.  Owing 
to  the  elasticity  of  its  limbs,  and  the  freedom  with  which 
the  skin  moves  on  the  body,  it  can  also  fall  or  jump  from 
a  great  height  without  sustaining  serious  injury. 

The  black  skins  are  the  most  valuable,  and  the  largest 
and  best  of  these  come  from  Holland.  Denmark  and  Hol- 
stein  also  produce  good  black  skins,  and  fair  and  medium 
skins  are  obtained  in  Germany,  France  and  Switzer- 
land. Russia  produces  many  skins,  but  they  are  of  poor 
quality.  All  cat  skins  have  a  line  of  bristly  hair  running 
down  the  back,  which  is  cut  out  when  they  are  being  manu- 
factured into  articles  of  fur  wear.  The  black  skins  are 
often  called  "Genet;''  but  while  they  are  a  good  depend- 
able fur  it  is  a  misrepresentation  to  sell  them  for  Genets. 

Cuvier  says,  that  the  habitat  of  the  Domestic  Cat  was 
originally  in  the  forests  of  Europe;  where  in  its  wild 
state  the  fur  was  of  a  greyish  brown  with  dark  trans- 


The  Cat  Family, 


127 


verse  undulations  and  paler  below  than  on  the  top,  and 
yellowish  on  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  feet.  Naturalists 
all  claim  that  if  turned  out  again  into  the  wild  the  Do- 
mestic Cat  would  go  back  to  its  original  color  and  habits. 


White  African  Cat. 


Everything  indicates  that  the  Wild  and  Domestic  Common 
Cats  belong  to  the  same  species.  The  greater  length  of  the 
more  tapering  tail  of  the  House  Cat  being  accounted  for 
by  the  better  feeding  and  greater  comfort  it  enjoys. 


European  Wild  Cat. 

The  dun  and  yellow  Caffer  Cat,  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  with  its  brown  or  spotted  marks,,  the  Bokharan 
Chaus  or  Afghan  Cat,  with  its  longer,  lighter  fur  and 
few  rings  on  the  tail,  the  European  Wild  Cat  and  all  the 
Domestic  or  House  Cats,  are  undoubtedly  varieties  of  the 
same  species  (Felis-eatus). 


128  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

Reference  to  the  classification  charts  will  show  that 
there  are  more  species  of  Leopard  and  Tig'er  Cats  in 
different  parts  of  the  world  than  of  any  other  animal.  It 
is  impossible  to  give  a  detailed  description  of  each  variety 
here,  but  the  Servals  of  India  and  Africa,  like  the  Ameri- 
can Ocelot,  call  for  something  more  than  passing  notice. 

The  habitat  of  the  African  Tiger  Cat,  as  the  type  species 
(Felis-serval)  is  sometimes  called,  is  in  Algeria  and  other 
parts  of  East  Africa.  It  is  a  tall,  slender  animal  with  a 
small  head  and  pointed  broad  ears.  The  ringed  tail  is 
thick  and  heavily  furred.  The  ground  color  is  yellow 
above  and  white  on  the  under  parts.  There  are  four 
narrow  stripes  on  the  head  and  shoulders,  and  three  or 
four  black  stripes  running  the  length  of  the  back.  The  sides 
are  marked  with  numerous  large  round  black  spots,  that 
also  appear  on  the  belly,  but  farther  apart.  The  Cape 
Serval  is  smaller  than  the  Algerian,  and  has  a  much  longer 
tail.  The  orange  colored  variety  found  in  Senegal  has  a 
very  short  tail,  and  its  under  parts  are  Isabella  color. 
It  has  black  ears,  black  stripes  on  the  back,  and  full  round 
spots  on  the  sides.  There  are  several  other  sub-species 
of  the  African  Serval. 

There  are  two  distinct  species  of  the  serval  found  in 
India;  the  (Felis-viverrina),  which  is  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  type  species,  and  the  brownish  yellow  (Felis- 
himalayana)  which  is  smaller  still,  and  has  short  close 
hair,  marked  on  the  back  with  large  chocolate  colored 
stripes,  and  on  the  under  parts  with  spot-like  short  stripes 
of  the  same  color. 

The  Servals  are  blood  thirsty  animals,  but-  can  be 
tamed  if  taken  when  young.  They  prey  on  the  young 
antelopes,  and  in  settled  districts  rob  the  hen  coops. 

The  Margay  Cat  (Felis-tigrina)  is  an  animal  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  Ocelot.  Its  habitat  is  the  wooded 
lowlands  of  Mexico  and  all  the  countries  between  Mexico 
and  Paraguay.  It  is  about  two  feet  long  exclusive  of 
the  twelve  to  eighteen  inch  tail,  and  the  type  variety 
has  a  rather  harsh  fur  of  a  dun  drizzled  color  marked 
with  black  spots  and  rings.  Other  forms  have  soft  reddish 
fur  with  black  spots  that  often  have  a  pale  center,  and 
a  tail  that  is  larger  than  that  of  the  type  species. 


The  Cat  Family. 


129 


Geoffrey's  Cat  (Felis-geoffroy),  found  in  Paraguay 
and  Chili,  and  the  Ocelot-like  cat  (Felis-pardinoides)  of 
the  United  States  of  Columbia,  are  species  nearly  related 
to  the  Margay  cat.  The  former  has  a  short  whitish 
brown  fur,  with  a  white  throat  and  a  white  streak  on 
the  cheeks,  and  numerous  evenly  distributed  small  black 
spots  on  the  body.  It  also  has  four  black  streaks  on  the 
crown,  two  on  the  cheeks  and  one  on  the  chest.  The 
skull  is  short  and  broad.  The  Ocelot-like  Cat  measures 
eighteen  inches  without  the  ten  inch  tail,  and  has  dark 
blotches  with  a  black  border,  instead  of  the  spots  that 
distinguish  the  Geoffrey's  Cat  which  it  otherwise  greatly 
resembles. 


The  Ocelot. 


The  Ooelot  (Felis-pardalis),  the  largest  Leopard  Cat  of 
America,  is  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  and  has  a  twelve- 
inch  tail  which  is  partly  ringed.  It  is  a  lively  and  graceful 
animal,  marked  more  or  less  with  black  on  the  face  and 
light  under  parts;  and  showing  a  great  variety  of  mark- 
ings on  the  back  and  sides.  Some  specimens  are  beauti- 
fully striped,  while  others  are  blotched  like  a  dark  tabby 
cat,  but  they  are  all  characterized  by  the  oblong  shape  of 
the  dark  spots  with  drab  centers  which  appear  on  the 
sides;  on  the  back  the  spots  are  always  solid  black.  The 
Ocelot  is  the  third  largest  of  the  American  Felidae,  and  is 
sometimes  called  the  Jungle  Cat  and  the  Young  Jaguar. 
Its  range  is  from  Texas  south  through  Mexico,  Central 
America  and  South  America,  down  to  Southern  Brazil. 


130  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

There  are  also  a  number  of  species  of  uniform  brownish 
colored  Panther  Cats,  of  which  the  Jaguarondi  (Felis- 
yaguarondi),  whose  range  is  from  Texas  through  Mexico 
and  Central  America  to  Brazil,  is  a  type.  The  Jaguarondi 
has  a  slender  elongated  body,  a  very  long  tail,  and  short 
limbs.  It  is  larger  than  a  good  size  domestic  cat  and 
quite  often  seen  in  captivity. 

The  Pampas  Cat  (Pelis  Payeros)  is  another  type  of 
South  American  Wild  Cat.  It  is  distinguished  from  the 
Leopard  and  Panther  Cats  by  its  short  full  tail,  and  the 
dark  transverse  bars  on  its  greyish  yellow  coat,  which 
cause  it  to  somewhat  resemble  the  European  Wild  Cat  in 
appfearance. 

LEOPARDS. 

The  Leopard,  the  most  graceful  and  beautiful  of  all  its 
tribe,  is  the  largest  spotted  cat  of  the  old  world.  It  is  not 
as  large,  strong  or  fierce  as  the  American  Puma  or  Jaguar, 
but  superior  in  these  particulars  to  all  the  Felidae 
of  the  Eastern  continent,  except  the  Lion  and  the  Tiger. 
The  body  of  a  good  size  Leopard  will  measure  four  feet  in 
length,  exclusive  of  th-e  three  foot  tail.  The  skull  is  nine 
inches  long  and  five  inches  across  at  the  widest  part. 
There  are  several  distinct  species  of  this  animal,  and  a 
number  of  sub-species  or  varieties  of  the  type  species 
(Felis-pardus),  which  was  called  the  panther  by  the 
ancients,  and  is  now  commonly  known  as  the  Pard. 

The  Pard  is  found  in  Africa,  Southern  Asia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelego.  The  East  Indian 
Leopard  (F.  pardus-panther)  is  the  most  numerous  of  the 
Asiatic  Pards.  It  is  a  rich  reddish  yellow  color  above  and 
white  beneath.  On  each  flank  it  has  six  or  seven  rows  of 
large  open  ring-like  black  rosets  with  orange  centers, 
that  in  some  cases  are  clearly  defined.  A  profusion  of 
solid  black  spots  of  different  sizes  show  on  the  neck, 
breast,  belly  and  legs,  and  the  head  is  beautifully  marked 
with  black  and  white  stripes.  The  tail  has  a  black  tip  and 
black  spots  along  the  entire  length,  and  the  ears  are  also 
tipped  with  black.  The  Pards  on  the  island  of  Ceylon 
are  somewhat  smaller  and  lighter  in  color  than  those' 
inhabiting  the   central  and  southern  portions   of  India, 


The  Cat  Family. 


131 


and  have  longer  and  softer  fur.  The  Leopard  of  North 
Eastern  India  is  still  smaller  and  lighter,  and  more  thickly 
covered  with  black  spots. 

The  large,  dark  yellow  Pard  of  southern  China,  Java, 
Siam  and  Sumatra  (L.  pardus-variagatus),  has  reddish 
roset  rings,  in  which  the  openings .  are  closed  with  spots 
of  the  same  color.  A  smaller  variety,  with  a  longer  tail, 
and  colored  more  like  the  Par dus-p anther,  and  marked 
with  innumerable  spots,  each  made  up  of  two  or  three 
black  dots,  is  seen  on  the  island  of  Sunda. 


Ounce  (Snow  Leopard). 


The  Snov^  Leopard  (Felis-uncia),  also  called  the 
Ounce,  is  a  distinct  species.  Its  habitat  is  in  the 
Vale  of  Cashmere,  in  the  Himalayas,  and  other  highlands 
of  central  Asia.  The  fur  of  this  animal  is  almost  two 
inches  long,  and  white  on  the  surface,  but  bluish  at  the 
roots.  In  spite  of  its  length,  the  fur  is  harsh  to  the  touch ; 
this  being  due,  probably,  to  its  exposed  habitat  on  the 
mountain  wastes.  The  legs  are  faintly  marked,  and  the 
thickly  furred  tail  is  longer  than  the  body,  and  also 
marked  with  faint  rings.  The  spots  on  the  head  are 
small,  black  and  solid.  From  the  reference  to  **The 
Mountains  of  the  Leopard ''  in  Canticles  (IV-8)  it  would 
appear,  that  this  animal  in  ancient  times  had  a  habitat  in 
Palestine. 


132 


Carnivoba  Fissipedia. 


The  Black  Pard  of  Java  is  probably  only  a  color  varia- 
tion, as  mothers  have  been  seen  nursing  young  of  different 
hues.  It  is  said  that  Black  Leopards  are  never  seen  on 
the  main  land,  and  the  skins,  some  of  which  are  so  dark 
that  the  spots  are  hardly  perceptible,  and  others  of  a 
greyish  shade  on  which  the  spots  stand  out  in  beautiful 
contrast,  are  highly  prized. 


Black  Leopard. 

The  Persian  Pard  (F.  pardus-tulliana)  is  not  as  graceful 
as  the  East  Indian  Leopard,  but  larger  and  slenderer,  and 
very  beautiful.  The  greyish  yellow  ground  color  is 
whitish  in  places,  and  marked  with  black  roset  rings  of 
solid  spots.  ,The  range  of  this  animal  extends  from 
Persia  to  the  Caucausian  Mountains.  The  (F.  pardus- 
sinensis)  of  southern  China  resembles  the  East  Indian  Pard 
in  some  respects,  but  is  smaller  and  of  a  darker  yellow  color 
and  marked  with  small  spots. 

The  Chinese  Leopard,  the  (F.  pardus-fontaineri)  of 
Mongolia,  Manchuria  and  the  entire  eastern  slope  of  the 
Himalayas,  has  a  fine  dense  fur,  that  is  over  an  inch  long, 
with  black  markings  showing  on  the  brownish  yellow  ground 
color.     The  hair  on  the  neck  and  belly  is  longer  than  on 


The  Cat  Family.  133 

the  rest  of  the  body,  and  the  long  thickly  furred  tail  is 
marked  with  spots  at  the  base.  The  (F.  pardus-greyi),  a 
much  smaller  Leopard,  is  found  in  the  same  habitat.  The 
Pard  of  Turkistan,  and  the  western  Himalayas,  also  has 
a  long  fur,  but  it  is  coarser  and  lighter  in  color  than  that 
of  the  Mongolian  Leopard.  The  Corean  Leopards  are  much 
lighter  than  those  of  northern  China,  and  have  shorter 
tails. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  Pards  in  Africa  south  of 
Senegambia,  the  most  important  of  which,  the  Common 
Leopard  (Felis-pardus,  leopardus)  of  West  Africa,  is 
characterized  by  its  large  size,  small  ears  and  long  tail, 
which  is  two-thirds  the  length  of  the  body.  It  is  light 
yellow  in  color,  and  marked  on  the  head,  neck  and  legs 
with  black  spots  of  various  sizes,  and  on  the  rest  of  the 
body  and  the  tail  with  rosets  formed  of  five  or  six  small 
points  each.  The  other  African  varieties  of  the  Felis-pardus 
are  the  (F.  pardus-somaliensis)  of  Abysinnia  and  Sumalo- 
land,  which  has  larger  ears,  larger  spots  and  more  rosets, 
and  is  considerably  darker  in  color  than  the  West  African 
Pard;  the  (F.  pardus-suabelicus)  of  South  Africa  that  has 
very  large  spots;  and  the  (F.  pardus-antiquorum)  of 
Algeria,  which  is  the  largest  and  darkest  of  the  African 
Leopards. 

(Felis-Chalibelata),  is  the  designation  given  to  a  dis- 
tinct species,  found  in  the  eastern  parts  of  East  India.  It 
stands  lower  than  any  other  Leopard,  and  has  a  tail  as 
long  as  the  head  and  body  combined. 

The  type  species  of  the  rare  and  beautiful  Clouded 
Leopard,  or  panther,  has  its  habitat  in  the  mountains  of 
Northern  India,  Burma  and  Siam.  It  is  about  the  size  of 
an  ordinary  small  leopard.  The  color  is  a  brownish 
yellow  on  the  upper  parts,  and  lighter  beneath.  It  has 
large  oblong  black  spots  on  the  back,  and  small  spots 
between  the  two  broad  bands  on  the  head.  The  sides  are 
almost  entirely  covered  with  large  irregular  black 
blotches,  and  there  are  a  number  of  dark  rings  on  the 
tail. 

Other  species  of  the  Clouded  Leopard  are :  The  (Felis- 
macrocelis)  of  Borneo,  and  the  (Felis-macrourus)  of 
China. 


134 


Carnivoba  Fissipedia. 


The  Hunting"  Leopard,  (Felis-jubata),  has  a  smaller 
and  shorter  head  than  the  Common  Leopard;  but  is 
longer  bodied,  and  stands  higher,  though  otherwise  it  is 
about  the  same  size.  Its  nails  are  not  retractile.  The  fur 
is  fawn  colored,  mottled  with  uniform  black  spots ;  and  it 
has  a  black  stripe  on  each  side  of  the  face,  reaching  from 
the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  mouth.  The  disposition  of  this 
animal  is  mild  and  docile,  and  its  name  indicates  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  mostly  used. 


Chitah 


The  Chitah  or  Hunting  Leopard,  takes  kindly  to  cap- 
tivity, and  permits  handling  to  a  greater  extent  than 
any  other  large  feline.  In  the  middle  ages  the  Chitah 
was  used  in  France  to  stalk  the  Koebucks  and  hares,  and 
in  India  it  is  still  trained  to  hunt  the  Antelope.  It  is 
drawn  blindfolded  on  a  cart  to  a  spot  within  a  few  hun- 
dred yards  of  a  herd  of  antelope,  when  the  bandage  is 
removed  from  its  eyes  the  Chitah  singles  out  some  animal 
in  the  herd,  and  approaching  it  by  bounds  seizes  it  and 
pulls  it  down. 

The  Leopards  all  have  a  peculiar  habit  of  watching; 
and  all  the  species  and  varieties  of  this  animal  have  the 
cat  habit  of  sharpening  their  claws  against  the  trees. 


The  Cat  Family.  135 


THE  LION 

The  Lion  (Felis-leo),  the  largest,  strongest  and  most 
courageous  member  of  the  Felidae,  is  rightly  named  the 
king  of  beasts.  It  was  at  one  time  frequently  seen  in 
Algeria,  Musholaland  and  other  parts  of  Central  Africa, 
South  Western  Asia,  Arabia  and  Guzarat  in  India.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  found  in  much  colder  climates  than  its 
present  range,  which  is  becoming  more  and  more  restrict- 
ed. Now  the  large,  lean,  short  maned  East  African  Lion 
is  the  most  numerous  variety  of  the  Felis-leo.  The  Lion 
lives  chiefly  on  sandy  plains  or  in  rocky  places  interspersed 
with  thorn  thickets ;  but  it  also  frequents  the  low  bushes 
and  tall  rank  grasses  and  reeds  along  the  edges  of  streams, 
where  it  lies  in  wait  for  the  larger  herbivorous  animals 
upon  which  it  feeds.  It  is  occasionally  seen  abroad  in  the 
day  time,  but  the  night  is  the  period  of  its  greatest 
activity.  The  Lion  usually  trots  and  sometimes  even  gal- 
lops, but  its  ordinary  pace  is  a  walk.  It  cannot  climb,  but 
has  been  known  to  jump  over  fences  twelve  foot  high  in 
pursuit  of  its  prey.    It  fears  nothing  but  fire. 

The  roar  of  the  Lion  is  deep,  impressive  and  appalling ; 
but  it  is  an  established  fact  that  formidable  and  merciless 
as  the  Lion  is  when  aroused  it  will  not  go  out  of  its  way 
to  attack  a  human,  but  will  avoid  a  conflict  unless  it  is 
famished  or  defending  its  young,  or  approached  so  close 
that  it  is  afraid  to  turn  and  retreat. 

The  adult  male  Lion  is  about  ten  feet  long  measuring 
from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  the  color  is  a 
uniform  tawny  brown,  and  the  tail  is  tipped  with  a  tuft  of 
elongated  black  hairs. 

There  are  individual  cases  where  the  adult  Lion  is  of  a 
deep  red  or  chestnut  brown  color,  and  occasionally  one 
is  seen  whose  skin  is  almost  silver  grey.  The.  young 
when  born,  and  for  several  months  after,  are  spotted  or 
striped.  They  play  like  kittens,  and  the  mother  carrier 
them  by  the  back  of  the  neck.  The  period  of.  gestation  is 
about  one  hundred  days,  and  from  two  to  three  whelps 
are  produced  at  a  birth. 


136  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

The  male  of  the  species  possesses  a  mane  which  gives 
the  full-grown  animal  a  majestic  appearance.  The  mane 
is  usually  black  or  brown,  and  sometimes  grows  beyond 
the  forelegs  and  is  a  protection  to  the  male  lions  when 
fighting.  The  mane  begins  to  grow  when  the  animal  is 
about  three  years  old  and  is  fully  developed  by  the  time  it 
is  five  or  six  years  of  age.  The  small  ears  of  the  Lion 
are  black  or  dark  brown. .  The  canine  teeth  are  two 
inches  long  and  in  the  man-eaters  they  are  blunted  or 
broken.  The  full-grown  male  will  weigh  five  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  and  upwards ;  but  the  Lioness,  which  is  much 
smaller  and  has  no  mane,  will  weigh  only  two  hundred 
pounds,  or  even  less.  There  are  two  marked  species  of 
the  Lion;  the  Leo-africanus  and  the  Leo-asiaticus,  but 
there  are  several  varieties  of  each.  The  Lion  is  principally 
sought  for  its  skin,  although  the  living  animals  are  valuable 
for  menageries  and  zoological  collections.  A  live  male 
Lion  is  worth  from  $1,500  to  $2,000;  the  skins  bringing 
about  one-tenth  of  that  amount.  The  Lioness  is  much 
less  valuable. 

The  Lions  from  different  districts  show  considerable 
variation  in  size,  color  and  other  external  characteristics. 
The  Germans  distinguish  them  as  Berberlowen,  Kaplowen, 
Massailowen,  Persicher  Lowen,  Lowen  von  Guzzerat  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  list.  The  zoologists  dvide  the 
different  local  representatives  of  the  Felis-leo  into  the 
following  sub  species:  leo-barbarus,  leo-capensis,  leo- 
senegalensis,  leo-somaliensis,  leo-massaicus,  leo-kamptii, 
leo-persicus  and  leo-goojratensis. 

The  Cape  Lion  is  now  seldom  seen  near  the  Cape  or  in 
the  Orange  Free  State,  its  habitat  having  been  crowded 
back.  The  Guzerat  Lion,  which  is  the  largest  represen- 
tative of  the  family,  and  the  Persian  Lion,  the  smallest  of 
the  tribe,  have  also  become  rare.  The  ''Man  Eaters"  are 
principally  found  among  the  long  geared  Massai  Lions  of 
Central  East  Africa.  The  Cape  Lion  is  distinguished  by 
its  long  dark  mane,  the  now  almost  extinct  Algerian  Lion 
alone  surpassing  it  in  this  respect.  The  Northwest  African 
Lion  is  a  smaller  variety  that  is  characterized  by  its 
orange  color  and  yellow  mane. 


The  Cat  Family.  137 


LYNXES. 


All  the  Lynxes  are  distinguished  by  the  pencils  of  black 
hair  which  ornament  the  tips  of  their  ears  and  the  long 
fringe  of  hair,  black  at  the  base  and  white  at  the  extrem- 
ity, that  surrounds  their  faces.  They  all  have  very  short 
tails,  and  their  skins  are  usually  more  or  less  spotted  but 
there  is  considerable  variation  in  color,  not  only  in  the 
various  species  but  in  the  same  animal  at  different  sea- 
sons, and  at  different  elevations,  or  in  different  localities. 

The  Jungle  Cat  (Felis-chaus)  is  the  connecting  link  that 
prevents  the  Lynxes  from  being  considered  as  a  distinct 
species.  It  is  larger  than  the  domestic  cat  with  which 
it  agrees  in  having  three  premolar  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw, 
as  well  as  in  the  form  of  the  lower  flesh  tooth ;  but  in  the 
circular  pupil  of  its  eye,  its  shorter  tail,  and  a  few  long 
hairs  on  the  tips  of  the  ears,  it  approximates  to  the  Lynxes. 
In  color  it  varies  from  a  yellowish  grey,  to  a  greyish  brown, 
on  the  back,  with  reddish  white  under  parts ;  the  cheeks  and 
breast  may  be  either  banded  or  pale,  and  the  tail  is  always 
ringed  and  has  a  black  tip  like  the  ears.  Black  specimens 
are  seen  occasionally.  In  length  it  varies  from  twenty- 
four  to  thirty  inches,  exclusive  of  the  ten  inch  tail.  This 
animal  has  a  wide  range,  being  found  in  India,  Persia, 
Ceylon,  Burma,  Syria  and  North  Africa.  It  is  also  known, 
as  the  Chaus  and  the  Marsh  Lynx,  although  it  is  some- 
times found  in  the  Himalayas  at  an  elevation  of  eight 
thousand  feet,  and  frequents  the  open  country  as  well  as 
the  jungles.  It  breeds  twice  a  year  and  produces  from 
three  to  four  kittens  at  a  litter.  It  is  very  savage  and 
even  the  young  are  generally  untamable. 

The  Caracal  (Felis-caracal)  is  believed  to  be  the  species 
to  which  the  expression  ''Lynx-eyed"  owes  its  origin.  It 
is  also  known  as  the  Persian  and  the  Red  Lynx,  although 
the  latter  name  properly  belongs  to  one  of  the  North 
American  species.  The  Caracal  was  the  true  Lynx  of  the 
ancient  but  is  now  a  rare  animal,  although  its  habitat 
still  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  India  and  a  large 
portion  of  Africa.  This  animal  is  of  slender  build,  from 
twenty-six  to  thirty  inches  long,  has  a  ten  inch  tail, 
and  stands  about  eighteen  inches  high  at  the  shoulders. 


138  Garni voRA  Fissipedia. 

The  color  varies  from  a  reddish  fawn  to  a  brownish 
red,  paler  on  the  under  than  the  upper  parts  of  the  body ; 
the  limbs  and  the  tail  are  usually  the  same  color  as  the 
body,  but  in  some  individuals  the  tail  has  a  black  tip ;  the 
ears  are  black  on  the  outside  and  white  within.  The  Car- 
acal is  found  in  the  grass  and  bushes  oftener  than  in  the 
forests.  It  feeds  on  the  smaller  species  of  deer,  hares, 
cranes  and  other  birds,  and  is  so  active  it  can  jump  and 
capture  birds  on  the  wing  at  a  height  of  five  to  six  feet 
from  the  ground.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  can  be  taught 
to  capture  the  animals  that  are  its  natural  prey. 

The  Pardine  Lynx  (Felis-pardinus),  of  Southern  Europe, 
is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  Lynxes,  clearly  defined 
rounded  black  spots  showing  through  the  soft  fur,  which 
is  fox  red  on  the  upper  and  white  on  the  lower  parts. 
Cuvier  refers  to  the  (Felis-cevaria)  of  Asia  as  being  the 
handsomest  representative  of  its  family;  but  from  his 
description  it  must  be  a  variety  of  the  Pardine  Lynx  rather 
than  a  distinct  species,  although  it  appears  to  be  larger 
in  size,  and  to  have  a  denser  fur. 

The  Persian  or  Siberian  Lynx,  which  is  classed  by  some 
zoologists  as  (Felis-isabellina),  is  probably  a  local  variety 
of  the  Common  Lynx  of  Europe. 

Compared  with  the  American  Lynx  the  Common  Lynx 
of  Europe  (Felis-lynx)  is  a  rare  animal.  It  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared from  France  and  some  other  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  but  is  still  found  in  considerable  numbers 
in  Russia,  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  Finland  and  Spain. 
It  is  very  much  like  the  American  type  in  its  soft  silvery 
winter  coat,  but  its  summer  dress  is  considerably  redder 
although  the  color  varies  in  different  localities,  sometimes 
being  a  light  brown  marked  with  small  black  spots. 
In  the  milder  climates  it  always  has  less  fur  and  is  more 
spotted  than  where  it  is  exposed  to  extreme  cold.  In 
structure,  habits  and  disposition  the  American  and 
European  Lynxes  are  so  much  alike  that  they  should 
properly  be  considered  as  different  varieties  of  the  same 
species. 

The  American  Lynx  (Felis-canadensis)  is  abundant  in 
all  British  North  America,  except  Labrador  where  the 
skins  are  of  superior  quality,  but  the  animal  is  compara- 


The  Cat  Family.  139 

lively  rare.  Minnesota  appears  to  be  the  southern  limit 
of  its  eastern  habitat,  but  it  is  sometimes  found  as  far 
south  as  the  Adirondack  Mountains;  its  range  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  North  American  continent  extending 
from  Alaska  to  California.  The  skins  from  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Hudson  Bay  country,  closely 
resemble  those  of  the  Norway  Lynxes  of  Europe  in  the 
character  of  the  pelt  and  the  beauty  of  the  fur.  The  Cali- 
fornia and  northwestern  varieties,  while  stronger  in  the 
fur,  are  coarser  and  redder  than  the  Nova  Scotia  skins. 
The  Alaska  skins  have  a  soft,  rich,  thick  fur,  but  they  are 
very  pale  in  color.  The  Sitka  skins  have  a  shrivelled  ap- 
pearance but  the  fur  is  soft  and  fine.  All  the  Alaska 
Lynxes  are  characterized  by  the  thick  hair  that  protects 
their  large  foot  pads  from  the  snow. 

The  American  or  Canadian  Lynx  is  two  feet  high,  and 
from  three  to  four  feet  long  including  the  five  inch  tail. 
As  is  the  case  with  all  of  its  kind,  the  hind  legs  are 
much  longer  than  the  front  legs,  and  the  claws  are  quite 
sharp  and  retractile  and  well  concealed  in  the  thick  foot 
pads.  Its  winter  pelage  consists  of  a  coat  of  thick 
soft  fur,  about  one  inch  long  on  the  back,  which  is  inter- 
mixed with  longer  silvery  hairs;  the  under  coat,  which 
in  some  rare  instances  is  drab  or  blue  or  light  yellow,  gen- 
erally being  light  reddish  in  color  on  the  surface.  The 
ground  color  of  the  under  fur  is  invariably  a  greyish  blue ; 
and  the  fur  on  the  belly  is  always  finer  and  longer  than 
that  on  the  back,  generally  showing  light  spots  through 
the  three  inch  silky  hairs.  The  fur  is  always  thicker  and 
richer  on  the  paler  animals  than  on  those  of  darker  hue. 
In  summer  the  Lynx  loses  most  of  its  beautiful  fur 
and  its  chief  covering  is  a  brownish  red  hair.  The  skin 
of  the  Lynx  is  thin  but  as  is  the  case  with  all  of  the  Cat 
family,  it  is  thicker  at  the  neck  than  on  the  other  parts  of 
the  body. 

The  Lynx  is  a  shy  animal  dwelling  in  the  deep  forests 
and  bush  country  where  it  preys  on  birds,  hares  and  other 
small  mammals,  sometimes  attacking  young  fawns  and 
lambs,  but  the  stories  of  its  killing  full  grown  deer  are 
probably  fiction.  It  is  said  to  swim  well,  and  its  ordinary 
gait  is  a  long  gallop  like  that  of  a  hare,  but  when  leaping 
over  the  ground  with  the  back  arched  it  presents  a  pecu- 


140 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


liar  appearance.  The  Lynx  is  hunted  for  its  skin 
which  is  very  valuable.  The  hunters  either  follow  its 
track  through  the  snow,  or  hunt  it  with  dogs  trained  to 
follow  the  trail  by  scent  till  the  animal  is  treed  and  shot. 


Lynx. 


The  name  Lucerne  formerly  given  to  the  Lynx  Avas  prob- 
ably a  contraction  of  Loup-Cervier,  a  term  applied  to  it  by 
the  early  French  writers  ''who  ascribed  to  it  a  habit  of 
dropping  from  trees  onto  the  backs  of  the  deers,  and  des- 
troying them  by  tearing  their  throats  and  drinking  their 
blood." 

The  Bay  Lynx  (Felis-rufa),  also  known  as  the  American 
Wild  Cat  or  Cat  Common,  is  placed  in  a  separate  species 
because  of  its  inferior  size,  uniform  reddish  color,  bushy 
tail  and  shorter  fur.  It  shows  considerable  vari- 
ation in  color  and  pelage  in  different  localities  of  its  hab- 
itat. A  handsome  spotted  variety  is  found  in  Texas  and 
southern  California,  and  another  with  dark  vertical 
streaks  in  Washington  and  Oregon;  these  were  formerly 
regarded  as  distinct  species  and  classed  respectively  as 
Felis-maculata  and  Felis-faciata.  The  type  species  of 
American  Wild  Cat  is  rarely  seen  as  far  north  as  the  Adi- 
rondacks,  being  more  common  in  milder  climates,  where 
Dr.  Merriam  says:  ''They  frequent  rocky  hills  and  ledges 
and  do  not  show  that  antipathy  to  civilization  so«marked 
in  their  cogeher  the  True  Lynx.  In  fact,  the  Bay  Lynx  is 
often  quite  common  in  thickly-settled  portions  of  the 
country,  and  sometimes  proves  of  much  annoyance  to  the 


The  Cat  Family.  141 

farmer  by  carrying  off  lambs,  little  pigs,  and  poultry — 
ducks,  geese,  turkeys  and  chickens  proving  equally  ac- 
ceptable. Away  from  the  farmyard  it  feeds  upon  rabbits, 
squirrels,  mice,  grouse,  and  what  small  birds  it  is  fortunate 
enough  to  capture.  It  generally  makes  its  nest  in  a  hol- 
low tree  or  log,  and  lines  it  well  with  moss.  From  two  to 
four  young  constitute  a  litter,  the  most  frequent  number 
being  three." 

There  is  a  large  and  woolly  variety  of  Cat  Common 
found  in  Nova  Scotia,  known  as  the  Canadian  or  Halifax 
Bay  Lynx,  which  is  much  larger  than  the  other  varieties 
of  the  species,  and  has  a  finer,  denser  and  longer  fur. 
It  is  a  rich  grey  brown  in  color  and  the  belly  is  beautifully 
marked  with  black  spots,  and  some  of  the  skins  of  this 
animal  almost  equal  those  of  the  true  Lynx  in  quality. 

The  Plateau  Lynx  (Felis-baileyi),  a  species  of  Ameri- 
can Lynx  found  on  the  high  plateaux  of  Colorado,  Utah 
and  Arizona  approximates  closer  to  the  Bay  Lynx 
or  American  Wild  Cat  than  it  does  to  the  true  Lynx;-but 
it  has  a  shorter  tail,  softer  fur,  and  a  paler  light  buff  color 
above,  and  lacks  the  black  markings  found  on  the  face 
and  forehead  of  the  Bay  Lynx. 

The  lair  of  the  True  Lynx  is  usually  formed  among  the 
rocks.  It  is  savage  in  spite  of  its  timidity,  often  killing 
more  animals  than  it  can  devour.  The  young  are  born 
blind,  and  from  two  to  three  cubs  are  produced  at  a  birth. 


142 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


PUMA. 

The  Puma,  sometimes  erroneously  called  the  panther, 
is  also  known  as  the  American  lion.  Its  principal  habitat 
is  in  Central  and  South  America,  but  it  is  also  found  in 
some  parts  of  the  North  American  Contineiit,  at  one  time 
being  quite  common  in  New  York  State. 

The  Puma  is  a  powerful  animal  from  four  to  five  feet 
long;  and  its  bushy  black-tipped  tail  is  nearly  as  long  as 
the  body.  It  is  capable  of  making  great  leaps — a  spring 
of  twenty  feet  not  being  uncommon.  The  general  color 
of  the  body  is  a  light  dun  brown,  the  fur  on  the  belly 
being  much  lighter  and  longer  than  on  the  back.  Ex- 
cept for  mountings  and  rugs  the  skins  have  little  value 


Puma  or  Couguar. 

at  present,  though  at  one  time  they  were  used  for  car- 
riage robes.  The  color  changes  with  age  until  it  becomes 
a  silvery  fawn  in  the  older  animals. 

It  is  said  to  be  swifter,  deadlier,  more  subtle  and  more 
voracious  than  the  Jaguar.  The  Guanaco  is  its  favorite 
prey ;  but  the  Viscachas  also  are  the  victims  of  its  insatiable 
appetite  and  thirst  for  blood,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
terror  with  which  it  inspires  them  these  creatures  have 
become  wild  to  excess. 


The  Cat  Family. 


143 


JAGUAR. 

The  Jaguar  is  about  as  large  as  a  timber  wolf,  and  in 
strength  and  ferocity  resembles  the  royal  Bengal  tiger; 
but  unlike  the  tiger  it  is  an  agile  climber,  although  it  has  a 
massive  and  heavy  appearance. 

The  general  color  of  the  Jaguar  is  a  light  yellowish 
brown,  beautifully  marked  with  chocolate  brown  or  black 
roset  rings,  which  with  the  exception  of  those  on  the 
head  and  tail  generally  have  a  small  black  spot  in  the 
center.  The  hair  is  short,  but  longer  than  that  on  the 
East  Indian  Leopard,  and  is  almost  white  on  the  under 
part  of  the  body. 


Jaguar. 

''It  is  a  merciful  dispensation  of  Providence  that  ani- 
mals like  the  Jaguar,  Puma,  Tiger  and  Lion  are  not  gre- 
garious, but  hunt  singly  or  in  couples.  If  they  herded 
like  wolves  whole  provinces  would  be  depopulated  by 
their  ravages;  but  as  it  is  they  can  be  destroyed  in  de- 
tail and  their  numbers  kept  within  bounds  while  their 
depredations  are  confined  to  their  native  jungles." 

The  Jaguar  is  found  in  Mexico,  British  Honduras  and 


most  parts  of  South 
and  Peru. 


America  with  the  exception  of  Chili 


144  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


THE  TIGER. 

Handsomer  in  color  and  markings  but  not  as  majestic  in 
appearance  as  the  Lion,  the  Tiger  is  said  to  fully  equal  if 
it  does  not  excel  in  strength  the  king  of  beasts. 

As  is  the  case  with  many  mammals  the  general  color  of 
the  Tiger  assimilates  itself  to  the  color  of  the  country  in 
which  it  lives ;  and  in  the  reedy  jungles  of  India  its  stripes 
are  so  difficult  to  distinguish,  that  it  is  often  fully  upon 
people  before  they  are  aware  of  its  presence. 

Most  tigers  will  avoid  a  man,  but  some  species  watch 
for  human  victims  upon  the  highways,  and  at  night  even 
enter  the  settlements  to  secure  their  prey.  At  one  time  it 
was  no  unusual  thing  for  whole  villages  to  be  abandoned 
because  of  the  terror  inspired  by  these  ferocious  creatures, 
but  the  number  of  these  ''man  hunters"  has  been  greatly 
reduced  by  the  "shikarees"  employed  by  the  local  authori- 
ties to  destroy  them,  and  by  those  who  have  pursued  them 
to  secure  the  bounty  offered  by  the  British  Crown  for 
Tiger  Skins. 

Some  scientists  class  the  Mongolian  Tiger  and  other 
varieties  of  this  animal  found  in  Sumatra,  Java,  Corea 
and  the  Maylayan  Peninsula  as  belonging  to  a  number  of 
different  species,  but  in  spite  of  some  marked  differences 
in  external  appearance  they  are  all  local  varieties  of  the 
Felis-tigris. 

There  are  really  only  two  marked  and  distinct  varieties 
of  this  ani^lal;  the  Bengal  Tiger,  and  the  Mongolian  or 
Chinese  Tiger.  The  Turkistan  or  Himalayan  Tiger,  while 
its  coarse  fur  is  deeper  and  redder  in  color  than  that  of 
the  Chinese  Tiger,  and  sometimes  even  has  brown  stripes, 
cannot  be  considered  as  a  separate  variety,  the  differences 
noted  being  probably  due  to  its  more  exposed  habitat  in 
Turkistan,  and  on  the  high  grounds  of  Asia  and  the 
western  Himalayas. 

To  protect  it  from  the  cold  of  its  elevated  habitat 
the  Mongolian  Tiger  is  covered  with  a  rich,  thick 
fur  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  inches  in  depth,  in- 
stead of  the  short  hair  which  forms  the  coat  of  the 
Bengal  Tiger;  and  is  thus  easily  distinguished  from  the 
latter    variety.      The    skins    are    sometimes    beautifully 


The  Cat  Family.  145 

marked,  but  in  general  color  they  are  lighter  than  those  of 
the  Bengal  Tiger,  and  the  stripes  are  not  as  black  and 
numerous. 

White  Tigers  with  light  brown  stripes  are  rare  but  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful. 

The  face  of  the  Chinese  Tiger,  like  that  of  the  lynx,  is 
surrounded  by  a  long,  deep  fringe  of  white  and  black  fur ; 
and  on  many  of  the  animals  there  is  a  hump  of  longer 
and  thicker  fur  between  the  shoulders  than  on  the  rest 
of  the  body,  and  on  all  of  them  there  is  a  thick  ridge 
of  bristly  hair  running  down  the  back  the  same  as  on 
the  lynx  and  other  species  of  the  cat  family.  On 
many  of  the  younger  animals  the  color  is  sometimes  pale, 
but  the  larger  adults  are  mostly  of  a  fine,  rich  brown 
color,  approaching  the  deep  hue  of  the  Bengal  variety. 
The  cubs  have  the  densest  coats.  The  ears  of  the  Tiger 
are  black  with  white  tips. 

The  Bengal  Tiger  is  the  smaller  and  more  numerous  of 
the  two  varieties,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  brightness  of 
its  markings.  The  strongly  contrasting  colors  of  the  head 
are  w^hite  and  black.  The  belly  is  white,  but  the  general 
color  of  the  body  is  a  rich  reddish  brown  striped  with 
black,  with  well  defined  spots  sometimes  showing  between 
the  stripes,  especially  on  the  legs.  The  tail  is  long  and 
ringed  with  black.  The  strong  bristling  whiskers  are 
white,  and  the  hair  of  the  body  is  short  and  lies  very  close 
to  the  skin. 

The  skins  of  the  Bengal  Tiger  have  a  more  uniform 
value  than  either  of  the  other  varieties.  The  Himal- 
ayan tigers  are  sometimes  worth  from  two  to  four  times 
as  much  as  the  Bengal,  and  a  fine  Mongolian  skin  that  is 
large  and  perfect  is  ten  times  as  valuable.  The  skins 
of  the  different  varieties  are  principally  used  for  rugs. 
Only  a  small  proportion  of  the  Bengal  skins  find  their  way 
into  the  market,  most  of  them  are  kept  as  trophies  by  the 
English  officers  and  others  who  secure  them ;  and  the  skins 
of  the  animals  killed  by  ''shikarees"  are  generally  sold  to 
tourists,  who  exhibit  them  to  admiring  friends  at 
home,     as     evidences     of    their     courage     and     prowess. 

The  Bengal  Tiger  rarely  exceeds  eleven  feet  in  length 
including  its  tail,  but  the  skins  of  the  Mongolian  Tiger 
sometimes  measure  as  much  as  fourteen  feet. 


146 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


The  Civet  Family.  147 


THE  CIVET  FAMILY. 


The  Civets  occupy  a  position  between  the  Felidae 
and  the  Hyaenidae.  They  have  much  more  elongated 
heads  and  longer  muzzles  than  the  Cat  Family.  They 
have  forty  teeth.  The  tongue  is  bristled  with  sharp, 
rough  papillae.  The  true  Civets  (The  Viverra)  all  have 
large  forms  and  robust  bodies  from  two  to  three  feet 
long,  exclusive  of  the  fifteen  inch  tail,  and  walk  on  the 
tips  of  their  toes.  Their  legs  are  short,  and  each  small, 
rounded  foot  is  furnished  with  five  toes  the  claws  of 
which  are  partially  retractile.  Although  their  eyes  re- 
main round  and  full  in  the  day  they  are  nocturnal  and 
solitary  animals,  hiding  in  the  w^oods,  bushes  or  thick 
grass  during  the  day  time,  feeding  on  snakes,  frogs,  in- 
sects, eggs,  fruits  and  roots,  and  going  out  at  night  to 
kill  any  small  animals  they  may  find.  They  take  readily 
to  the  water  but  most  of  the  species  are  poor  climbers. 
The  young  are  produced  in  May  or  June,  three  or  four 
at  a  birth. 

The  fur  is  ash  colored,  irregularly  barred  and  spotted 
with  black ;  the  tail  is  black  at  the  end  and  has  four  or 
five  black  and  white  rings  near  its  base.  Two  black  bands 
encircle  the  throat  and  one  surrounds  the  face;  a  black 
mane  runs  along  the  whole  length  of  the  spine.  The  fur 
of  most  of  the  species,  however,  is  of  little  value. 

The  Civet  Cats  are  of  interest  commercially  because  of 
a  musky  substance  which  is  obtained  from  a  deep,  two 
sac  pouch  situated  near  the  anus  of  the  animal;  this  secre- 
tion oozes  into  the  pouch  from  peculiar  glands,  and  is  ob- 
tained by  the  natives  of  Abyssinia  and  Java  by  scraping 
the  inside  of  the  pouch  with  a  spatula.  A  dram  is  often 
secured  by  one  scraping  and  the  operation  can  be  re- 
peated at  short  intervals.  As  this  civet,  as  the  substance 
is  called,  sells  for  ten  dollars  an  ounce  to  the  perfumers 
who  use  it  as  a  base  for  perfume  extracts,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  pays  to  domesticate  these  animals  even  though 
they  are  irritable  and  untrustworthy.  The  Civet  Cats  are 
dangerous  animals  when  aroused,  and  as  they  produce 


148  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

more  of  the  secretion  when  angry  they  are  generally  con- 
fined by  those  who  cultivate  them  in  a  cage  so  long  and 
narrow  that  they  are  unable  to  turn  around  when  the 
spatula  is  being  used  to  obtain  the  secretion. 

The  habitat  of  the  Civet  Cat  is  confined  entirely  to  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere,  the  majority  of  the  species  being 
Asiatic  though  some  are  found  in  Africa.  The  Asiatic 
species  (Viverra-zibetha)  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
(Viverra-civetta)  of  Africa  by  the  black  half -rings  ex- 
tending the  whole  length  of  the  tail,  black  bands  on  the 
side  of  the  neck,  and  the  absence  of  a  mane. 

This  animal  should  never  be  confounded  with  the  little 
striped  skunk  of  North  America,  the  so-called  ''Civet  Cat" 
of  commerce,  which  is  fully  described  in  its  proper  place 
in  the  weasel  family.  The  Chinese  Civet  is  not  only  an 
entirely  different  animal,  but  its  coarse,  harsh  fur  is  of  a 
different  color,  and  the  skins,  of  which  quite  a  number 
are  consumed,  are  only  used  where  price  is  the  primary 
consideration. 

In  China  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  this  animal  is 
also  known  as  the  Bush  Cat,  and  the  Chinese  species  are 
called  Chinese  Civets  by  the  furriers. 

In  the  Genets  (Viverra-genetta),  the  pouch  is  reduced 
to  a  slight  depression  formed  by  the  projection  of  the 
glands,  and  has  scarcely  any  visible  secretion  although 
an  odor  is  diffused  from  it  that  is  very  perceptible.  The 
pupils  of  the  eyes  of  the  Genet  form  a  vertical  fissure  in 
the  light  and  the  nails  are  completely  retractile  as  in 
the  Cat.  It  is  also  distinguished  from  the  Civet  by  the 
slenderness  of  its  body,  a  longer  and  more  tapering  tail, 
shorter  and  blunter  claws,  and  the  nature  of  its  fur  which 
is  short  and  soft,  brownish  yellow  or  greyish  in  the 
ground,  and  blackish  brown  on  top.  These  animals  are 
easily  tamed,  and  in  the  south  of  Europe  the  (Genetta- 
vulgarus)  or  Common  Genet  is  often  kept  in  the  houses 
for  killing  rats  and  mice. 


The  Civet  Family.  149 

The  Common  Genet  (Genetta-vulgaris)  is  grey,  spotted 
with  black  or  brown,  and  has  a  blackish  muzzle.  It  has 
white  spots  on  the  brows,  cheeks,  and  on  each  side  of  the 
end  0^^  the  nose;  the  tail  is  the  same  length  as  the  body 
and  annulated  with  black  and  white,  the  black  and  white 
rings  being  from  nine  to  eleven  in  number.  It  is  the  only 
species  of  Genet  now  found  in  Europe,  and  its  range  is 
from  the  south  of  France  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In 
the  different  localities  it  varies  in  the  size  and  the  number 
of  the  spots  in  the  bands  along  the  Shoulder  and  the  neck, 
as  well  as  in  the  lines  on  the  nape  of  the  neck.  It  frequents 
the  edges  of  parks  near  springs.  The  skins  of  different 
species  of  this  animal  are  used  more  or  less  at  all  times 
by  furriers,  but  the  fur  generally  sold  under  the  name 
of  Genet  is  that  of  the  European  Black  Cat,  which  in 
Holland,  Denmark  and  Holstein  has  a  beautiful  dense 
brownish  black  pelage  that  is  soft  and  durable,  and  espe- 
cially suited  for  coat  linings  because  the  skins  are  very 
pliable  and  light  in  weight. 

The  Blotched  Genet  (Genetta-tigrina),  is  found  only  in 
Africa,  and  is  lighter  in  color  than  the  Yiverra-civetta, 
and  marked  with  blotches,  instead  of  spots.  The  tail  is 
marked  with  six  to  nine  dark  or  black  rings ;  and  a  white 
mark  on  each  side  of  the  mouth  is  another  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  animal. 

Those  whose  habitat  is  nearest  the  equator  are  darker 
than  those  found  in  other  parts  of  Africa,  and  they  are 
called  Pardine  Genets;  but  they  are  simply  a  variety  of 
the  same  species. 

The  Fossane  of  Madagascar  has  its  tail,  flanks  and 
all  above  fawn  color;  the  legs  and  all  beneath  being  a 
yellowish  white;  there  are  reddish  brown  spots,  forming 
four  longitudinal  bands,  on  the  back;  the  tail  is  semi-an- 
nulated  with  red  and  is  only  half  the  length  of  the  body. 

The  Paradoxure,  also  known  as  the  Palm  Cat  of  India, 
is  only  found  in  west  Africa.  It  is  about  twelve  inches 
long  with  a  tail  two  feet  long.  It  has  the  teeth  and  most 
of  the  characteristics  of  the  Genet,  with  which  it  was  for 
a   long   time   .confounded;   it   is  however   more   stoutly 


150  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

limbed;  its  feet  are  semi-palmate  and  its  walk  is  nearly 
plantigrade;  but  what  particularly  distinguishes  it  is  the 
spiral  inclination  of  the  tail,  which  is  not  prehensile.  The 
color  is  yellowish  brown,  with  spots  of  a  deeper  brown; 
the  face,  muzzle  and  part  of  the  tail  are  blackish;  the 
eyebrows  are  white,  and  there  is  a  white  spot  under  the 
eye. 

The  Rasse  (Viverra-mallaccensis),  also  known  as  the 
Malaca  Weasel,  and  Lesser  Civet,  has  a  greyish  brown 
body  about  10  inches  long,  with  small  brown  spots  on 
the  rump  forming  five  longitudinal  lines.  The  tail  is 
shorter  than  the  body  and  annulated  Avith  black  and  white, 
the  black  rings  numbering  six  or  seven.  The  hair  is 
harsher  than  in  the  preceding  species.  This  animal  is 
easily  irritated,  and  has  a  sharp  bite. 

Ichneumon  (Herpestes-ichneumon).  This  is  an  Egyptian 
animal  which  hunts  out  crocodile  eggs,  and  is  also 
known  as  the  Tracker  because  like  all  the  Mungoose  it 
can  track  or  trace  out  a  footstep.  It  is  a  carnivorous 
animal,  classed  by  Linnaeus  as  the  (Viverra-ichneumon), 
but  is  now  known  as  the  Herpestes-ichneumon  of  the  fam- 
ily Viverridae  or  Civet. 

It  has  a  slender  form  something  like  the  Weasel.  The 
body  is  about  nineteen  inches  long,  and  of  a  grizzled 
brownish  color.  The  muzzle  and  face  are  black  and  the 
tail  is  tufted;  it  feeds  on  small  mammals,  eggs,  reptiles 
and  small  birds.  It  is  easily  domesticated,  and  is  useful 
in  destroying  vermin.  The  fur  has  no  commercial  value, 
and  the  species  is  only  mentioned  here  because  of  its 
connection  with  the  Viverridae. 

Another  species  of  Ichneumon  or  Mungoose  (Herpestes- 
grisius)  is  so  easily  domesticated  that  it  is  kept  in  many 
houses  in  India  to  rid  them  of  reptiles,  mice,  etc.  Though 
small,  this  Mungoose  is  absolutely  fearless,  and  its 
movements  are  so  rapid  that  the  snakes  it  attacks  have 
no  chance  to  poison  it.  It  is  grey  in  color,  flecked  with 
black  and  about  the  size  of  a  small  cat. 


151 


THE  DOG. 

The  origin  of  the  dog  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer. 
Some  think  it  is  descended  from  the  wolf,  and  others 
claim  the  jackal  is  its  progenitor;  but  all  admit  there  is 
no  trace  to  be  found  of  it  in  a  primitive  state.  Scientists 
are  all  agreed  however  that  "the  dog  is  neither  a  species, 
nor  the  descendant  of  any  one  species  modified  by  dom- 
estication, but  that  dogs  of  different  parts  of  the  world 
have  a  correspondingly  various  ancestry  from  different 
wild  species  of  the  genus  Canis,  such  as  wolves,  foxes  and 
jackals." 

"The  differences  between  dogs,  and  the  readiness  of 
most  of  them  to  cross  with  their  wild  relations,  seems  to 
prove  the  contention  that  the  name  Canis-familiaris  is  a 
convention  rather  than  a  proper  zoological  designation 
of  the  dog  as  a  species." 

It  is  hard  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  classification  of 
domestic  dogs;  as  those  that  some  naturalists  regard  as 
types  are  held  by.  others  to  be  mongrels.  ^  One  old  classifi- 
cation divided  them  into  three  groups,  according  to  the 
special  qualities  they  possessed — Celeres,  Sagaces  and 
Pugnaces;  but  Col.  Hamilton  Smith  groups  the  domestic 
dogs  into  six  divisions;  (1)  Wolf  Dogs;  such  as  Siberian, 
Eskimo,  Newfoundland,  Great  St.  Bernard  and  Sheep 
Dogs;  (2)  Watch  and  Cattle  Dogs;  like  the  German  Boar 
Hound,  Danish  Dog  and  Dog  of  the  American  Indians ;  (3) 
The  Greyhounds ;  including  the  Irish  Hound,  Lurcher  and 
Egyptian  Street  Dog;  (4)  Hounds;  taking  in  the  Blood 
Hound,  Stag  Hound,  Fox  Hound,  Harrier,  Beagle,  Pointer, 
Setter,  Spaniel,  Springer,  Cocker.  Blenheim  Dog  and 
Poodle;  (5)  The  Curs;  under  which  designation  are  in- 
cluded the  Terrier. and  all  its  allies;  (6)  The  Mastiff, 
Bulldog,  Pug-dog,  etc. ;  but  all  these  varieties  soon  lose 
their  distinctive  characteristics  if  they  are  left  to  inter- 
breed, and  to  prevent  this  tendency  to  reversion  it  is 
necessary  that  the  several  strains  be  kept  pure  by  arti- 
ficial selection  along  the  lines  of  desired  specialization. 
The  best  bred  dogs  of  every  form  are  those  furthest 
removed  from  an  organic  or  common  type  of  production. 


152  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

''All  through  the  different  varieties  the  difference  of 
heredity  is  seen  in  the  readiness  with  Avhich  dogs  inter- 
breed with  one  another,  and  cross  with  wolves,  foxes, 
and  jackals;  and  the  readiness  with  which  like  the  cat, 
they  return  to  the  wild  state  of  their  native  ancestors." 

AVhere  so  many  are  worthy  of  special  mention  it  is 
hard  to  pick  out  a  few  for  particular  consideration;  the 
following  are  selected  only  because  they  seem  best  to 
illustrate  the  great  difference  between  the  various  breeds 
of  domesticated  dogs  as  to  size,  color,  structural  charac- 
teristics, nature  and  habits. 

The  Chinese  Dog,  which  is  the  most  important  com- 
mercially, is  about  the  size  of  a  large  Retriever  and  shows 
much  variation  in  color,  some  specimens  being  white, 
others  black,  and  many  mottled  or  brindled.  In  addition 
to  the  wild  animals  of  this  species  there  are  thousands 
of  small  dog  and  goat  farms  all  over  Manchuria  and  the 
Eastern  borders  of  Mongolia,  on  each  of  which  from  a 
score  to  a  hundred  dogs  are  reared  annually.  Most  of 
the  Chinese  dog  skins  are  dressed  and  made  into  robes 
of  from  four  to  eight  skins  before  they  are  exported  from 
China  to  the  different  fur  markets  of  the  world.  The 
Chinese  dog  skin  takes  a  brilliant  black  dye,  and  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  "Chinese  Lynx"  muffs  and  neck 
pieces,  as  well  as  for  making  sleigh  robes  and  men's 
overcoats. 

The  Dalmatian  or  Coach  Dog  is  an  artificial  breed,  and 
is  built  much  like  the  pointer,  but  its  white  coat  is  liber- 
ally marked  with  black  spots.  This  animal  is  worthless 
for  any  other  purpose  than  running  under  the  carriage 
of  its  master. 

The  Dingo  (Canis-dingo)  is  a  fierce,  wild,  wolf -like 
Australian  dog,  with  short  erect  ears,  and  a  bushy  tail. 
It  is  about  three  feet  long,  and  in  general  color  either  a 
reddish  brown,  black,  or  brindled  like  a  wolf.  It  breeds 
well  in  confinement,  but  in  its  wild  state  is  very  destruc- 
tive to  flocks,  and  is  consequently  persistently  hunted. 
The  skins  are  of  little  value. 

The  Eskimo  Dog,  of  North  America  and  Eastern  Asia, 
with  its  deep  dun  color  marked  with  darker  patches  is 
used  only  as  a  beast  of  burden  in  the  Arctic  regions,. 


The  Dog  Family — Dogs.  153 

where  a  team  of  these  animals  will  draw  the  Eskimo 
sixty  miles  over  the  ice  in  a  day.  It  is  characterized  by 
its  black  eyes,  elongated  muzzle  and  bushy  tail. 

The  Maltese  Bog  with  its  long  white,  silky  hair  and 
round  muzzle  is  one  of  the  smallest  representatives  of  the 
family,  and  is  principally  valued  as  a  household  pet. 

The  Typical  Newfoundland  Dog  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  handsomest  dogs.  It  has  a  long,  broad  muzzle,  car- 
ries its  head  well  up,  and  has  wavy  or  curly  black  and 
white  hair,  and  a  bushy  curled  tail.  It  is  noted  for  its 
sagacity,  patience,  good  nature  and  affection  for  its  mas- 
ter ;  and  in  Newfoundland,  and  other  parts  of  its  habitat, 
is  made  to  draw  sledges  and  wagons  loaded  with  fish, 
firewood  and  other  supplies  of  various  kinds.  There  is  a 
variety  of  Newfoundland  Dog  that  is  almost  all  black. 

The  Raccoon  Dog  is  found  in  China,  Japan  and  through- 
out Northeastern  Asia ;  but  most  of  the  skins  taken  from 
this  species  are  exported  from  Japan.  It  is  a  lively  ani- 
mal, only  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  the  skins  are  some- 
times sold  as  ''Jackal,"  ''Chinese  Badger,"  "Sea  Fox"  or 
"Japanese  Fox."  The  Chinese  call  it  the  Kju  Hao  Tze, 
and  in  Japan  it  is  known  as  the  Tanuki.  The 
general  color  is  a  dark  brownish  grey,  the  soft  thick 
underfur  being  of  a  light  reddish  hue,  while  the  long, 
bristly  top  hairs  are  black.  There  is  a  white  stripe  over 
the  eye,  and  sometimes  a  dark  mark  across  the  shoulders 
like  that  on  a  cross  fox.  The  ears  are  dark  brown,  and 
the  short  tail  is  occasionally  tipped  with  white;  rarely  a 
white  spot  is  seen  on  the  dark  covering  of  the  short  legs. 
The  skins  are  used  in  their  natural  state,  or  plucked  and 
dyed,  for  making  trimmings  and  fur  sets. 

The  Siberian  Dog  is  a  larger  animal  than  the  Chinese, 
and  has  a  finer  and  more  valuable  skin.  It  is  usually 
black,  so  that  many  of  the  skins  can  be  used  in  their 
natural  color. 

In  the  Oriental  countries,  where  the  dog  is  a  scavenger, 
performing  the  same  work  as  the  vultures,  it  is  not 
prized  as  it  is  in  western  lands,  but  is  regarded  as  a 
thing  unclean.  The  Pariah  dog,  half  wild,  half  starved 
and  belonging  to  no  one,  but  subsisting  by  scavenging 
and  theft,  infests  every  town  and  village  in  India. 


154  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

Civilized  nations  have  acquired  many  breeds  of  dogs 
by "  direct  importation,  and  other  varieties  have  been 
secured  by  crossing  and  artificial  selection,  but  some 
strains  have  been  introduced  into  countries,  where  they 
were  before  unknown,  by  savage  and  half-civilized 
people,  who  in  their  migrations  have  carried  with  them 
the  breeds  they  had  obtained  by  domesticating  the  wolves 
and  the  wild  dogs  of  their  native  country. 

All  the  living  representatives  of  the  Dog  family,  in 
which  are  included  the  Dogs,  Foxes  and  Wolves,  are  so 
much  alike,  apd  resemble  one  another  so  much  in  struc- 
ture, habits  and  distinguishing  characteristics,  that  scien- 
tists have  placed  nearly  all  the  species  in  a  single  genus. 
Canis.  The  teeth  of  the  dogs  are  much  less  carnivorous 
in  character  than  those  of  the  cats,  and  their  legs  are 
larger  and  more  free  from  the  body  so  they  can  walk 
erect  upon  their  limbs,  and  are  adapted  for  running 
rather  than  springing  or  climbing;  as  a  rule  they  have 
five  toes  upon  the  fore  and  four  upon  the  hind  feet,  the 
development  of  the  rudiamentary  fifth  toe  showing  con- 
siderable variation  in  the  different  species.  The  claws 
in  time  become  worn  and  blunt  at  the  top  because  they 
do  not  have  the  slightest  power  of  retraction.  The  inner 
toe  of  the  fore  feet  is  placed  high  up,  and  in  some  cases 
is  lacking.  The  normal  number  of  teeth  is  forty-two 
but  one  or  two  species  have  an  extra  molar  on  both  sides 
of  each  jaw,  and  a  few  have  less  than  the  normal  number. 
There  is  a  remarkable  resemblance  in  the  sectorial  teeth 
of  all  the  species,  the  Azara's  Dog  ( Canis- jubata)  of  South 
America,  and  the  Kaccoon  Dog  (Canis-procyonoides)  of 
Japan,  who  live  largely  on  fruits  and  roots,  having  the 
same  pattern  of  sectorial  teeth  as  the  more  carnivorous 
forms. 

The  difficulty  of  classifying  the  Canidae  is  increased 
by  the  great  range  of  variation  in  each  species;  but 
apart  from  some  structural  peculiarities  the  foxes  can 
be  distinguished  from  the  dogs  and  wolves  by  their 
bushy  tails,  elongated  pupils,  erect  acute  ears,  and  longer 
muzzles.  The  skulls  of  the  largest  grey  and  red  foxes 
are  inferior  to  that  of  the  average  Jackal,  and  those  of 
the  smaller  species  of  Foxes  are  less  than  half  the  length 
of  an  average  Wolf  skull. 


Wild  Dogs. 


155 


156 


Domestic  Dogs. 


The  Dog  Family— Foxes.  157 


THE  FOXES. 

There  are  four  distinct  species  of  North  American 
Foxes;  the  Western  Kitt  or  Swift  Fox  (Canis-velox),  the 
Grey  Fox  (Oanis-virginianus),  the  Red  Fox  (Canis-fulvus) 
and  the  Arctic  Fox  (Canis-lagopus).  There  are  two  vari- 
eties of  the  Arctic  Fox — the  Blue  Fox  and  the  White  or 
Polar  Fox.  The  Black,  Silver  and  Cross  Foxes  are  all 
colpr  varieties  of  the  Canis-fulvus,  naturalists  claiming 
that  the  only  difference  they  show  is  in  the  fur.  Other 
writers  say  that,  as  these  varieties  are  only  found  in  the 
Northern  districts,  they  should  be  considered  as  a  separate 
species  from  the  North  American  Red  Fox  whose  habitat 
extends  well  into  the  Southern  portion  of  the  hemisphere, 
but  as  they  all  interbreed,  and  pups  of  the  various  colors 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  same  litter,  the  scientists  are 
ji:istified  in  placing  them  all  in  the  same  species.  Even  the 
Red  Fox  shows  considerable  difference  in  size,  markings, 
cobr,  and  the  quality  of  the  fur  in  different  localities; 
those  from  Nova  Scotia,  Labrador,  the  Hudson  Bay 
Country  and  other  Northern  sections  being  larger,  and 
having  longer  and  richer  colored  fur  than  that  on  the  rep- 
resentatives of  this  variety  found  in  the  Northern  and 
Central  portions  of  the  United  States ;  where  they  are  most 
abundmt  in  the  New  England  states,  although  they  are 
found  also  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  and  as  far 
south  aa  West  Virginia  and  Virginia.  In  the  far  Western 
States  aind  on  the  Pacific  Coast  the  Grey  Fox  takes  the 
place  of  the  Red  Fox. 

Silver  ind  Black  Foxes  are  occasionally  met  with  in  all 
parts  of  (panada  and  in  the  most  northern  of  the  United 
States,  buithey  are  not  found  in  any  considerable  numbers 
sbilth  of  Newfoundland,  Labrador  and  the  northern  por- 
tions of  thevprovinces  of  Quebec  and  Ontario.  These  varie- 
ties are  als(\  quite  plentiful  in  the  interior  of  Alaska,  and 
the  Yukon  province  of  Canada  where  their  range  is  lost 
in  that  of  the  Arctic  Fox.  The  Arctic  Fox  is  a  bluish 
mauve  color  au  the  year  around,  in  the  lower  latitudes  of 
its  habitat,  buWccording  to  some  authorities,  in  the  far 
north  it  become\  white  in  winter,  when  it  is  known  as  the 
White  or  Polar  Eox ;  others  claim  that  the  White  and  the 


158  Garnivora  Fissipedia. 

Blue  Fox  are  district  varieties,  but  that  the  White  Fox 
becomes  dark  in  summer.  We  are  inclined  to  accept  the 
latter  theory.  The  range  of  the  Cross  Fox  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Black  and  Silver  varieties,  except  that  it 
extends  further  South  in  the  United  States. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  the  Grey  Foxes  are  found  only  in 
California  and  Oregon,  but  they  are  plentiful  all  through 
the  southern  and  south  central  states,  and  in  the  east  are 
met  with  as  far  north  as  Connecticut.  The  habitat  of  the 
Kitt  Fox  is  on  the  prairies  and  plains  of  the  far  west  and 
southwestern  states. 

The  mating  season  of  the  Red  Fox  is  in  February  or  the 
beginning  of  March,  and  the  young,  from  five  to  nine  to  a 
litter,  are  born  in  April  or  early  May.  The  mating  season 
of  the  Grey  Fox  is  later  and  its  young  are  produced  in 
May.  This  species  is  not  as  carnivorous  as  the  Red  Fox, 
and  fruit,  corn  and  fish  form  a  larger  part  of  its  diet.  The 
Arctic  Foxes,  who  in  their  natural  state  subsist  chiefly  on 
Lemmings,  and  in  some  parts  of  their  habitat  on  the  car- 
casses of  the  Seals  that  have  been  killed  for  their  fur,  take 
very  kindly  to  a  vegetable  diet  in  their  captivity.  The 
Grey  Fox  prefers  the  wooded  districts  for  its  home,  but 
the  different  varieties  of  the  Canis-fulvus  are  inclined  to 
the  more  open  country,  although  all  North  American 
Foxes,  with  the  exception  of  the  Kitt  or  Swift  Fox,  take 
to  the  rough  hilly  country  rather  than  the  level  plains. 

Red  and  Grey  Foxes  do  not  mix.  In  the  sections  where 
both  species  were  at  one  time  plentiful  the  Greys  have  in 
some  instances  driven  out  the  Red,  while  in  o:hers  the 
Reds  have  dominated  and  surplanted  the  Greys. 

In  Virginia  and  the  other  southern  sections  of  its  hab- 
itat the  North  American  Red  Fox  attains  its  deepest 
coloring,  but  the  animals  there  are  much  snaller  than 
those  seen  in  the  northern  part  of  its  range  r  the  bellies 
of  this  variety  are  sometimes  white,  but  usually  black ;  the 
long  bushy  tail  is  of  lightish  brown  color  with  longer 
black  hairs  on  the  top,  and  it  has  a  white  tip.  The  whiskers 
are  black,  and  the  ears  are  covered  with  a  short  black 
velvety  fur. 

The  largest  of  all  Red  Foxes  inhabit  the  Kadiak  Island. 
Their  skins  are  three  feet  long  exclusive  of  the  tail,  but 
the  color  is  pale  aiid  the  quality  of  the  far  is  coarse.     The 


The  Dog  Family — Foxes. 


159 


Kamschatka  Fox  surpasses  all  other  varieties  in  the  fine 
quality  of  its  fur,  and  the  depth  and  richness  of  the  red 
color.  Some  of  the  Mongolian  red  foxes  are  of  good 
quality,  but  most  of  the  skins  received  from  China  are 
coarse  furred  and  yellowish  in  color.  The  Japanese  Fox 
is  similar  to  the  Chinese,  but  the  color  is  somev^rhat  deeper, 
and  since  the  increase  in  the  value  of  American  Foxes  the 
skins  of  this  animal  have  been  quite  extensively  used. 
There  was  a  time  when  the  skin  of  the  Ked  Fox  was  the 
chief  medium  of  barter  in  Northeastern  Asia,  the  same  as 
the  Beaver  skin  was  in  America. 

Young  Foxes  are  covered  with  a  soft,  downy,  yellowish 
grey  fur  at  birth,  the  orange  colored  hair  not  beginning 
to  appear  until  they  are  five  or  six  weeks  old.  Even  the 
Indian  hunters  cannot  distinguish  the  pups  of  the  Red 
Fox  at  an  early  age  from  those  of  the  Cross  or  Silver 
Foxes. 

All  Foxes  have  the  soles  of  their  feet  covered  with  wool 
pads  in  the  winter,  no  callous  spots  being  then  visible. 


Silver  Fox. 

In  point  of  value  as  well  as  beauty  the  Black  and  Silver 
Foxes  come  first.  The  Arctic  Foxes  come  next,  then  the 
Cross,  and  last  the  Red  variety.  All  the  Foxes  of  this 
species  are  hardy  animals,  cunning  and  suspicious.  They 
spend  but  little  of  the  time  in  their  dens  on  the  sandy  hill 
sides,  preferring  to  pass  the  day  curled  up  among  the 
grasses  or  weeds,  or  in  a  clump  of  brush,  or  on  the  top  of 
a  stump. 


V? 


160 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


They  hunt  their  food  at  night,  being  most  active  in  the 
early  morning  when  all  animal  life  is  on  the  move,  and 
they  have  a  better  chance  to  secure  the  small  animals  and 
birds  with  which  they  vary  their  diet  of  fruit,  nuts  and 
eggs. 


Grey  Fox. 


In  the  wild  state  foxes  are  monogamous.  The  male  has 
only  one  consort  in  a  season,  and  while  the  young  are 
being  reared  he  dutifully  forages  for  them.  In  confine- 
ment however  one  male  sometimes  has  been  mated  suc- 
cessfully with  two  or  even  three  females. 

When  born  the  young  are  small  and  weak,  but  if  all  is 
well  they  grow  rapidly,  and  when  about  six  weeks  old  begin 
to  come  out  to  play  and  to  lap  a  little  milk,  or  to  take  an 
occasional  bit  of  solid  food.  If  allowed  to  do  so  they  will 
continue  to  nurse  for  nearly  six  months.  They  breed  the 
first  season  when  a  little  less  than  a  year  old,  but  usually 
produce  only  two  or  three  young. 

Foxes  may  all  be  distinguished  from  the  Wolf  or  Dog 
by  their  longer  muzzles,  and  longer  and  more  tufted  tails. 
Their  upper  incisors  are  also  less  sloping,  and  the  pupils 
of  their  eyes  form  a  vertical  fissure  during  the  day.  They 
all  diffuse  a  more  or  less  fetid  odor,  dig  burrows,  and  are 
the  most  timid  of  the  dog  family,  attacking  none  but  the 
weaker  animals. 

As  before  stated,  "in  the  red  phase  the  Fox  is  entirely 
rich  fulvous,  except  restricted  black  markings  on  the  feet 


The  Dog  Family — Foxes.  161 

and  ears,  a  white  area  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  certain 
white-tipped  hairs  on  the  back  and  rump.  From  this  phase 
to  the  next  the  black  increases  in  extent,  until  in  the  typical 
cross  fox  the  black  predominates  at  the  feet,  legs  and 
under  parts,  while  fulvous  overlaying  black  covers  most  of 
the  head,  shoulders,  and  back.  A  gradual  increase  of  the 
black  and  elimination  of  the,  fulvous,  or  its  replacement  by 
white,  brings  us  to  the  next  phase,  the  silver  or  silver- 
grey  in  which  no  fulvous  appears,  the  entire  pelage  being 
dark  at  the  base  and  heavily  or  lightly  overlain  with  grey- 
ish white.  Silver  foxes  vary  from  those  in  which  the  color  is 
entirely  grizzled,  to  those  in  which  it  is  entirely  black,  except 
a  few  white-tipped  hairs  on  the  back  and  rump.  Finally,  in 
the  black  phase,  the  white  is  absent  from  all  parts  except 
the  tip  of  the  tail,  which  is  white  in  all  phases.  The  red 
phase  is  much  more  abundant  than  the  others,  but  the  three 
interbreed  freely,  and  wherever  one  occurs  occasional  ex- 
amples of  the  others  also  may  be  expected.  In  general  the 
cross  fox  is  fairly  common,  the  silver-grey  is  comparatively 
scarce,  and  the  pure  black  is  excessively  rare.  The  prices 
usually  paid  for  skins  of  the  different  phases  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  relative  scarcity  of  the  animals.  Thus  red  fox 
skins  command  only  a  moderate  price,  cross  foxes  are  some- 
what higher,  silver  foxes  are  many  times  higher,  and  pure 
black  skins  are  exceedingly  valuable  being  higher  priced 
than  any  other  fur  except  sea  otter." 

It  is  believed  that  the  Arctic  or  Blue  Fox  was  not  found  on 
the  Pribilov  Islands  at  the  time  of  their  discovery  in  1787, 
but  that  it  was  taken  to  those  islands  subsequently,  and 
under  the  fostering  care  of  the  government  the  herds  on 
these  islands  have  not  only  grown  strong  numerically  but 
produce  exceptionally  fine  skins.  They  are  therefore  very 
desirable  for  breeding  stock  and  can  be  obtained  from  the 
Secretary  of  Commerce  for  that  purpose,  sales  being  made 
from  time  to  time  under  competitive  bids. 

Blue  Fox  skins  from  the  Pribilov  Islands  have  been  mar- 
keted for  many  years,  some  idea  of  their  quality  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  three  hundred  and  ninety-one 
Blue  and  White  Foxes  taken  on  the  islands  in  the  winter 
of  1911-12,  netted  the  government  $20,505.17;  one  lot  of 
twenty-eight  skins  bringing  $3,675,  or  an  average  of  more 
than  $1  ^1  T>er  skin. 


162 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


In  the  chapter  on  Fur  Farming  considerable  space  is 
devoted  to  Silver  Fox  breeding,  but  no  mention  is  made  of 
successful  attempts  by  different  individuals  to  raise  Blue 
Foxes  on  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Alaska.  In  a  recent 
announcement  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  said  that  he 
intended  to  lease  twelve  islands  on  the  coast  of  Alaska  for 
five  years,  to  the  highest  responsible  bidders  who  would  en- 
gage in  the  business  of  rearing  this  species,  and  agree  to 
pay  an  annual  fee  of  not  less  than  $200.00. 

The  islands  which  it  is  proposed  to  lease  are  those  which 
which  had  been  leased  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
for  fox  propagation  purposes  prior  to  May  14,  1898.  They 
are  Chirikof  island.  Long  island.  Marmot  island,  Little 
Koniuji  island,  Simeonof  island.  Little  Naked  island,  Carl- 
son island,  Middleton  island,  Pearl  island,  Elizabeth 
island,  Aghiyuk  island  and  Chowiet  island. 

Leases  will  only  be  given  to  American  citizens,  and  com- 
panies or  corporations  organized  under  the  laws  of  a 
state  or  territory,  and  detailed  reports  must  be  made  by 
the  leasees  annually  to  the  Secretary  of  Commerce.  Fur- 
ther particulars  regarding  the  conditions  that  must  be 
complied  with  to  secure  a  lease  of  one  of  these  islands 
can  be  obtained  by  addressing  the  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
Washington.  D.  C. 

Ml 


White  or  Polar  Fox  in  Summer  Dress 

As  the  fur  of  the  White  or  Polar  Fox  is  much  less  valu- 
able than  that  of  the  Blue  or  Arctic  Fox,  breeders  should 
always  be  careful  to  eliminate  from  their  breed  of  Blue 
Foxes  any  individuals  that  show  any  tendency  toward 
the  white  fox  variety. 


The  Dog  Family — Foxes.  163 

Wilfred  H.  Osgood  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, says :  ' '  Cold  weather  has  no  terrors  for  Foxes,  and 
snow  is  their  delight.  In  confinement,  as  in  their  natural 
state,  they  show  considerable  individuality.  '  Some  are 
much  better  breeders  than  others;  some  can  never  be  in- 
duced even  to  mate,  and  others  mate  but  do  not  produce 
young.  Their  wild  nature  dominates  most  of  their  actions, 
and  it  is  rare  that  one  becomes  really  tame.  They  are  con- 
stantly in  a  state  of  fear,  and  it  is  only  by  the  greatest 
care  that  confidential  relations  can  be  established  between 
them  and  their  keepers. 

"Hope  for  increased  profits  in  fox  raising  lies  almost 
entirely  in  improving  the  stock  by  selective  breeding.  The 
darker  the  animal  the  more  valuable  its  pelt.  Hence  the 
object  of  every  breeder  should  be  to  produce  pure  black 
foxes,  or  as  nearly  pure  black  as  possible.  To  do  this  he 
must  retain  his  darkest  and  most  valuable  animals  for 
breeding,  selling  only  the  poorer  ones.  The  temptation 
to  sell  animals  of  high  value  is  often  very  great,  but  in  the 
long  run  such  animals  are  likely  to  be  more  profitable  if 
kept  for  breeding.  The  possibilities  of  modification  and 
improvement  by  selection  are  fully  as  great  with  wild 
animals  as  with  domestic.  This  has  already  been  demon- 
strated in  the  case  of  foxes.  Some  of  the  highest  priced 
fox  skins  ever  put  on  the  market  have  been  from  animals 
reared  in  confinement  and  improved  by  selective  breeding. 

*' Breeding  for  disposition  is  perhaps  fully  as  important 
as  breeding  for  color.  So  far  this  has  not  been  attempted 
to  any  extent,  but  evidently  it  may  be  of  great  importance 
in  overcoming  some  of  the  principal  difficulties  now  en- 
countered. By  selecting  those  animals  which  show  *the 
least  aversion  to  man,  due  regard  being  paid  to  prolific- 
ness  and  other  qualities,  a  strain  may  be  obtained  which 
will  breed  with  the  certainty  of  our  domestic  animals. 
This  in  time  should  produce  a  thoroughly  domesticated 
race  of  foxes,  a  result  of  inestimable  value,  amply  justify- 
ing the  utmost  efforts.  Although  it  may  not  be  fully  ac- 
complished by  those  who  begin  it  every  breeder  should 
keep  its  importance  in  mind,  for  every  slight  improvement 
will  be  to  his  advantage,  and  in  the  end  the  unqualified 
success  of  the  business  will  be  assured. 


164  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

Besides  the  prominent  species  that  have  been  mentioned 
in  this  article,  there  are  a  number  of  other  foxes  of  more 
or  less  importance  commercially  at  the  present  time. 

The  Prairie  Fox  of  the  central  states  is  smaller  than  the 
Kitt  Fox,  of  which  species  it  is  a  variety  although  its  dense 
fur  resembles  that  of  the  Grey  Fox.  It  has  a  black  tipped 
tail. 

The  Brazil  Fox  is  also  grey  in  general  color,  but  the  sides 
of  the  neck  are  reddish  and  it  has  a  black  line  commencing 
at  the  nape  of  the  neck  and  extending  to  the  middle  of  the 
tail. 

The  Patagonian  Fox  is  fawn  color  on  the  flanks  but  has 
red  ears  and  feet,  and  two-thirds  of  its  tail  is  black. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  Vulpes  Leucopus,  whose 
range  extends  from  the  Volga  to  India.  The  Hill  or  Stone 
Fox,  also  known  as  the  Cossac,  Steppe  and  Afghan  Fox, 
which  inhabits  the  high  table  lands  of  Asia,  is  of  medium 
size  and  has  a  long,  soft,  very  light  brown  fur,  that  in  some 
cases  becomes  a  darker  shade  on  the  back  and  rump,  causing 
it  to  look,  with  its  black  belly,  ears  and  legs  and  white 
tipped  tail,  something  like  the  American  Cross  Fox.  The 
East  Indian  Desert  Fox  is  very  small  and  lighter  in  color 
than  the  Hill  Fox,  and  has  white  silvery  hairs  on  the  back. 

African  Foxes  are  remarkable  for  the  size  of  their  ears; 
one  species  that  burrows  in  the  sands  of  Nubia  is  an  almost 
white  fawn  color ;  the  Cape  species  are  yellowish  grey  above 
and  whitish  beneath,  and  have  black  feet  and  tail  and  dorsal 
line. 

The  Asiatic  Kit  Fox,  called  Ture  by  the  French  because 
it  is  the  same  color  as  the  Turkish  Fox,  is  a  small  animal 
measuring  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  in  length.  The 
under  fur  of  the  back  is  light  grey  relieved  by  longer  white 
hairs ;  the  sides  are  light  yellow  and  the  belly  is  white ;  the 
ears  are  brownish  grey  and  tipped  with  black,  and  the 
twelve  inch  ^yellow  and  grey  tail  is  also  tipped  with  black 
hair ;  the  whiskers  are  black.  Its  burrows  are  always  seen 
on  the  open  plains.  Mr.  Say  claims  that  it  exceeds  even 
the  antelope  in  swiftness,  and  is  consequently  known  as 
the  velox  species  of  the  genus  vulpes. 


The  Dog  Family — Wolves. 


165 


WOLVES. 

In  America  there  are  two  distinct  species  of  Wolves; 
one  of  them  the  Grey  Wolf  v^^ith  its  grizzled  grey  coat 
showing  reddish  in  some  specimens  and  black  in  others, 
is  almost  identical  with  the  European  Wolf,  but  most  of 
the  strains  of  the  American  Wolf  are  larger  and  stouter 
than  those  of  the  European  species.  The  Grey  Wolf  is 
also  called  the  "Buffalo  Wolf"  because  of  its  former  abun- 
dance in  the  buffalo  country,  and  is  generally  known  as 
the  Timber  Wolf  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Prairie  Wolf 
or  Coyote,  a  much  smaller  animal  that  lives  in  the  open 
country  and  in  some  ways  resembles  the  Jackal. 


Grey  Wolf. 


The  Common  Wolves  of  Europe  (Canis-lupus),  stand 
from  twenty-seven  to  twenty-nine  inches  at  the  shoulders, 
and  are  yellowish  grey  in  color,  with  long  harsh  hair,  erect 
pointed  ears,  and  a  nearly  straight  tail.  "  They  are  crafty 
and  rapacious  animals,  swift  of  foot,  and  destructive 
enemies  of  the  sheep  fold  and  farm  yard.  They  associate 
in  packs  to  hunt  the  larger  quadrupeds  like  the  deer  and 


166  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

elk,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  will  attack  isolated 
travelers,  having  even  been  known  to  enter  villages  and 
carry  off  children;  but  they  are  cowardly  and  sneaking 
in  their  advances,  retreating  rapidly  if  disturbed  by  a 
man  or  dog,  and  showing  great  cunning  in  avoiding 
traps.  They  are  still  numerous  in  France,  Hungary,  Spain, 
Turkey  and  Russia,  but  became  extinct  in  England  in 
the  Fifteenth  Century,  and  disappeared  from  Scotland 
and  Ireland  in  the  early  part  of  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

''There  are  numerous  other  species  of  Wolves  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world.  Some  like  the  Thous  grading 
into  jackals;  others  like  the  Fox  Wolf  inclining  more 
toward  the  foxes ;  and  most  of  them  interbreed  easily  with 
some  varieties  of  the  dog  in  the  countries  they  inhabit, 
the  dog  itself  being  a  composite  of  a  mixed  wolf  an- 
cestry. 

Many  stories  have  been  told  about  the  ferocity  of  the 
Wolves,  and  when  food  is  scarce  in  the  winter  they  are 
doubtless  dangerous  animals  to  meet  when  they  are  trav- 
eling in  packs ;  but  the  writer  has  heard  the  Coyotes  howl 
all  night  without  offering  to  come  within  gunshot  range 
when  the  bright  fires  burning  in  the  camp  told  the  cun- 
ning animals  that  a  warm  reception  w^as  awaiting  them. 
It  is  claimed  however  that  the  common  Wolf  of  Europe 
is  of  a  bolder  and  fiercer  disposition  than  any  of  the 
American  species,  and  the  reports  that  come  to  us  from 
time  to  time  of  thrilling  adventures  of  sledging  parties 
in  Russia  support  this  contention. 

The  Russian  or  Black  Wolf  is  larger  than  the  other  Eur- 
opean varieties,  which  are  about  the  size  of  a  large  dog, 
and  has  long  black  top-hairs  with  a  thick  brownish  red 
underfur,  bluish  at  the  ground.  The  full  tail  is  of 
medium  length  dark  brown  above  and  light  below  and 
has  a  black  tip ;  the  ears,  which  are  generally  dark  brown, 
are  covered  with  a  soft  velvety  fur;  and  the  black  whis- 
kers are  few  in  number.  The  Siberian  Wolf  is  larger  still 
than  the  Russian  variety,  and  is  of  a  much  lighter  color 
and  has  much  harsher  fur. 

The  American  Grey  or  Timber  Wolf  (Canis-lupus-occi- 
dentalis),  found  in  the  wild  regions  of  North  America  as 
far  north  as  twenty-seven  degrees  north  latitude,  is 
fully   as   large   if   not   larger   than   the   Siberian   Wolf. 


The  Dog  Family — Wolves.  167 

It  is  from  five  to  six  feet  in  length,  and  in  the  extreme 
north  grows  to  a  still  larger  size.  Those  in  the  Church- 
ill District  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  almost 
white  hair,  while  those  from  the  Eskimo  Bay  District  are 
characterized  by  their  bluish  grey  color  although  occa- 
sionally black  and  even  fawn  colored  specimens  are  found 
there. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Alaskan  variety,  which  has 
coarser  hair,  the  American  wolves  have  finer,  denser  and 
longer  fur  than  the  European  species,  and  their  skins  are 
more  valuable,  especially  those  of  the  blue  and  white 
ones.  They  live  in  burrows  with  several  outlets,  where 
they  bring  forth  thftir  young  in  litters  of  from  four  to 
five  or  even  nine.  Dr.  Richardson  says:  "The  resem- 
blance between  the  northern  wolves  and  the  domestic 
dog  of  the  Indians  is  so  great  that  the  size  and  strength 
of  the  wolves  seems  the  only  difference.  I  have  more  than 
once  taken  a  band  of  wolves  for  the  dogs  of  a  party  of 
Indians;  and  the  howl  of  the  animals  of  both  species  is 
prolonged  so  exactly  in  the  same  key  that  even  the  prac- 
ticed ear  of  an  Indian  fails  at  times  to  discriminate  be- 
tween them.  The  Indians  do  not  consider  the  Black  Wolf 
to  be  a  distinct  race,  but  report  that  one  or  two  black 
whelps  are  occasionally  found  in  a  litter  of  Grey 
Wolves." 

The  American  Timber  Wolf  has  been  observed  as  far 
north  as  twenty-seven  degrees  and  has  broad  feet  well 
calculated  for  running  in  the  snow.  The  skull  and  denti- 
tion approach  closely  to  that  of  the  dog.  In  Alaska  wolves 
prey  on  the  Reindeer,  and  in  other  sections  the  Moose  is 
often  their  victim,  but  they  always  seemed  to  fear  to 
attack  the  Bison. 

The  Black  Thibetan  Wolf  (Canis-pallipes),  is  really  a 
climatic  variety  of  the  Common  Wolf  of  Europe,  but  is 
classed  as  a  separate  species. 

Chinese,  Japanese,  Indian  (Canis-pallipes),  and  South 
American  Wolves  (Canis-antarcticus),  are  of  little  import- 
ance commercially.  They  are  all  small  animals,  and  their 
skins  are  poor  in  quality. 

The  Coyote  or  Prairie  Wolf  (Canis-latrans),  which  is 
rapidly  disappearing  before  the  advance  of  civilization, 
is  much  smaller  than  any  of  the  other  important  species 


168  Carnivora  Flssipedia. 

of  wolves.  It  was  formerly  abundant  in  many  parts  of 
this  country  and  Canada  where  it  is  never  seen  now,  but 
it  still  ranges  the  plains  in  the  West  and  Southwest  por- 
tions of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  handsome  animal, 
showing  considerable  variation  in  color  from  a  grey  with 
black  tips  to  brown  and  black  specimens.  The  tail  is 
usually  tipped  with  black,  and  the  large  reddish  ears  are 
also  black  at  the  points.  The  dense,  long  fur  is  rather 
harsh. 

Although  the  Coyotes  are  generally  classed  by  scien- 
tists as  all  belonging  to  one  species,  Dr.  Merriam,  from  an 
examination  of  a  number  of  specimens  received  from  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  was  led  to  separate  them  into 
eleven  distinct  species. 


Coyote  or  Prairie  Wolf. 

What  the  Coyote  lacks  in  courage  it  makes  up  in  auda- 
city. W.  T.  Hornaday  says :  It  seems  to  know  when  the 
hunter  has  left  his  gun  behind,  and  on  such  occasions  will 
boldly  plant  itself  within  a  stone's  throw  of  its  enemy, 
and  even  when  a  man  is  armed  it  seems  to  know  within  a 
rod  just  how  near  it  is  safe  to  approach.  It  is  a  coward, 
and,  ''so  far  as  man  is  concerned  a  band  of  a  thousand 
Coyotes  can  be  put  to  flight  as  easily  as  one  animal;  but 
in  hanging  on  the  ragged  edge  of  civilization  and  living 
by  its  wits  no  one  can  beat  the  Coyote." 

Wolf  skins  were  formerly  used  only  in  their  natural 
color  for  making  sleigh  robes  and  coats,  but  when  the 
constantly  increasing  demand  for  muffs  and  neck  pieces 
of  long  fluffy  fur  caused  such  a  phenominal  advance  in 


The  Dog  Family — Wolves.  169 

the  price  of  the  lynx  and  fox,  the  furriers  saw  an  oppor- 
tunity to  utilize  the  wolf  to  meet  the  constantly  increas- 
ing call  for  good  popular-priced  long-haired  furs.  Wolf 
skins  are  now  being  dyed  black,  blue  and  other  shades, 
and  sold  either  for  what  they  are  or  under  some  fictitious 
name.  The  finer  grades  make  articles  as  beautiful  as  they 
are  serviceable ;  but  as  the  best  Siberian  Wolves  are  now 
worth  from  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  each,  and  fine  Ameri- 
can skins  are  bringing  as  high  as  seven  dollars,  the 
manufacturers  have  to  depend  upon  other  and  lower 
priced  skins  for  their  supply  of  ''cheap"  substitutes  for 
Lynx  and  Fox. 

Scandinavian  Wolves  are  similar  in  shape  to  the  Rus- 
sian, but  heavier,  and  deeper  in  the  shoulders,  and  lighter 
in  tint.  In  winter  they  become  almost  white.  The 
wolves  of  Italy  and  southeastern  Europe  are  fulvous, 
but  in  the  Pyrenees  a  Black  Wolf  is  found  that  is  more 
common  than  the  ordinary  variety.  The  Wolves  of 
France  are  smaller  and  browner  than  those  of  Germany, 
and  the  Indian  Wolf  approaches  the  Jackal  in  appear- 
ance more  nearly  than  any  of  the  other  Old  World 
wolves.  The  range  of  the  wolf  in  the  Old  World  extends 
from  the  German  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  embracing 
all  of  Europe  and  the  greater  part  of  Asia.  When 
wolves  attack  cattle  they  bite  their  hind  legs  so  as  to 
hamstring  them,  but  their  method  of  attacking  a  horse 
is  to  spring  upon  his  back,  or  to  seize  him  by  the  but- 
tocks   taking  care  to  keep  out  of  the  range  of  his  heels. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  naturalists,  as 
to  whether  the  American  Grey,  and  the  European  Com- 
mon Wolf  belong  to  the  same  species,  but  it  is  certain 
that  the  geographical  varieties  of  both  species  differ 
more  widely  among  themselves  than  the  type  forms  of 
each  do  from  one  another,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they 
are  identical. 


170 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


THE  JACKAL. 

The  Jackals  (Canis-aureus)  are  gregarious  animals, 
hunting  in  packs  and  rarely  attacking  larger  quadrupeds. 
They  hide  in  the  daytime  and  come  out  at  night  with 
dismal  cries  to  feed  on  the  remnants  of  the  lion's  prey, 
dead  carcasses  and  smaller  mammals  and  poultry.  These 
animals  are  numerous  in  India,  and  Algeria  where  the 
French  government  pays  a  bounty  for  their  slaughter 
and  as  high  as  thirty  thousand  are  killed  in  a  year;  but 
the  fur  is  harsh  and  of  little  value ;  they  interbreed  with 
the  common  dog  and  can  be  domesticated. 


The  Jackal. 


The  piercing,  unearthly  cry  of  a  pack  of  Jackals  prowl- 
ing through  a  village  at  night  is  familiar  to  all  who  have 
lived  in  Orental  lands,  and  is  appalling  to  weak  nerves. 

The  Wild  Jackal  emits  an  offensive  odor,  is  about  two 
feet  long,  and  has  a  black  sharply  pointed  nose.  It  is  a 
lively  animal  and  bites  quickly  and  sharply.  In  color  it 
is  a  light  reddish  brown  shading  deeper  on  the  back  than 
the  other  parts,  and  it  is  characterized  by  a  small  w^hite 
mark  on  the  throat.  It  has  sometimes  been  called  the 
"Lion's  provider,"  because  of  the  mistaken  impression 
conveyed  by  some  writers  that  it  hunts  prey  for  the  King 
of  Beasts, 


The  Hyaena  Family.  171 


THE  HYAENAS. 


The  Hyaenas  have  three  false  molars  above,  and  four 
below,  all  conical,  blunt  and  singularly  large;  their  su- 
perior carnivorous  tooth  has  a  small  tubercle  within  and 
in  front;  but  the  inferior  has  none,  presenting  only  two 
stout  trenchant  points.  So  powerful  are  the  muscles  of 
the  neck  and  jaws  of  the  Hyaenas  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  wrest  anything  from  between  their  teeth,  with 
which  they  are  able  to  crush  the  bones  of  the  largest  prey. 
They  are  nocturnal  animals  inhabiting  caves,  and  are 
extremely  voracious,  feeding  chiefly  on  dead  bodies, 
which  they  seek  for  even  in  the  grave.  A  thousand  super- 
stitious traditions  are  connected  with  them,  and  among 
the  Arabs  their  name  is  a  symbol  of  obstinacy. 

There  are  three  distinct  species  of  Hyaena,  all  repul- 
sive animals.  Owing  to  the  shortness  of  their  loins  and 
the  lowness  of  their  hind-quarters  they  do  not  walk, 
but  progress  by  a  sort  of  quick  shuffle,  occasionally  giv- 
ing utterance  to  peculiar  unearthly  cries.  They  are  as 
cowardly  as  they  are  ravenous,  and  hunt  in  packs  for 
their  food,  whether  it  be  carrion  or  living  prey.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem  these  beasts  can  be  tamed  and  even  domes- 
ticated. 

The  Striped,  or  Laughing  Hyaena  (Hyaena-striata),  in- 
cludes most  of  Africa,  and  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Persia 
and  India  in  its  range.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
large  dog,  but  its  feet  are  redigitigrade  with  retractile 
claws.  It  has  the  prowling,  nocturnal  habits  of  all  of  its 
kind,  hiding  in  caves  during  the  day. 

The  Spotted  Hyaena  (Hyaena-crocuta),  has  its  habitat 
in  South  Africa.  It  has  a  thin  fur  of  light  brown  color 
marked  with  dark  brown  spots;  and  there  is  a  ridge  of 
longer  hair  between  the  shoulders.  The  tail  is  thin  and 
bristling;  and  the  head  is  round,  with  dark,  prominent 
eyes. 

The  Brown  Hyaena  (Hyaena-brunnea)  is  also  found  in 
the  south  of  Africa,  where  the  inhabitants  of  the  Cape 
call  it  the  Shore  Wolf  which  it  resembles  in  size.  Its 
pelage,  which  is  darker  than  that  of  other  Hyaenas, 
is  from  eight  to  ten  inches  in  length  on  the  back  and 


172  Cabnivora  Fissipedia. 

sides.    It  is  reddish  in  color,  sprinkled  with  black  spots. 

The  Earth  Wolf  of  the  Dutch  (Proteles-cristatus),  gen- 
erally known  as  the  Aard  Wolf,  is  sometimes  called  the 
Hyaena  by  furriers;  but  it  has  weaker  jaw^s,  smaller  teeth, 
and  no  tubular  grinders  in  the  upper  jaw.  It  is  about 
three  feet  long  and  is  met  with  only  in  South  Africa.  Its 
thick  and  rather  long  under  fur  is  mixed  with  still  longer 
hairs;  and  the  tail  has  long  bristling  black  hairs.  The 
color  is  a  light  brown,  with  black  stripes  running  cross- 
wise of  the  body.    It  has  a  slight  mane  of  bristling  hair. 

The  Hyaena  is  distinguished  from  the  Dog,  by  the  num- 
ber of  its  toes,  four  to  each  foot.  The  Wild  Dog  of  the 
Cape  has  the  dental  system  of  the  Dog,  and  not  of  the 
Hyaena.  Its  form  is  long  and  thin;  it  is  about  the  size 
of  a  Wolf;  has  a  white  and  fawn-colored  mottled  fur, 
large  ears  with  black  tips.  It  is  a  gregarious  animal,  and 
frequently  approaches  Cape  Town,  devastating  its  en- 
virons. 


173 


THE  WEASEL  FAMILY. 
(Mustelidae.) 

As  the  human  family  is  composed  of  different  branches 
of  varying  degrees  of  intelligence,  wealth  and  refine- 
ment; so  the  Weasel  family  is  made  up  of  six  dis- 
tinct groups  differing  widely  from  one  another  in  com- 
mercial value,  in  exterior  character,  in  coloration,  in  the 
structure  of  the  teeth,  and  in  other  details;  but  they  are 
all  distinguished  by  the  great  development  of  the  curved 
ridges  of  bone  by  which  the  lower  jaw  is  held  in  place, 
and  by  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  upper  molar  teeth.  They 
are  all  carnivorous. 

The  tj^ical  forms  of  the  species  are  characterized  by 
long,  slender  bodies  and  short  limbs,  and  none  of  them  are 
very  large,  most  of  them  being  of  medium  or  small  size. 
Several  of  the  Northern  forms  have  a  dark  summer  and 
light  winter  dress,  differing  in  this  particular  from  all 
other  carnivores,  except  the  White  Fox.  One  of  the  Mar- 
tens, and  some  of  the  Badgers,  are  remarkable  for  ex- 
treme brilliancy  of  color;  and  *' warning  colors,"  or 
contrasting  bands  of  dark  brown,  or  black,  and  white, 
make  the  American  Skunk,  and  the  Cape  Polecat,  con- 
spicuous; but  most  of  the  members  of  the  Weasel  family 
are  clothed  with  a  fur  of  uniform  dark  tint.  The  family 
is  widely  distributed  on  all  the  great  continents  except 
Australia ;  it  is  also  noted  that  none  of  them  inhabit 
Madagascar.  With  very  few  exceptions  members  of  the 
Weasel  family  are  fierce  and  blood-thirsty;  cases  are  re- 
corded where  they  have  followed  rodents  twice  as  large 
as  themselves  into  their  own  burrows,  and  destroyed 
them  there. 

The  first  and  most  important  group  of  the  Weasel  fam- 
ily is  the  Marten  group ;  consisting  of  the  Pine  Marten, 
the  Stone  Marten,  the  Japanese  Marten,  the  Indian 
Marten,  the  American  Marten  (H.  B.  Sable),  the 
Sable,  the  Fisher,  the  Mink  and  the  Kolinsky.  In  the 
second,  or  Weasel  group,  are  included  the  Common 
Weasel,  the  Tayra,  the  Orison,  and  the  Stoat  or  Ermine. 
The  Polecats,  Ferrets  and  Skunks  constitute  the  third  or 
Polecat  Group.     Under  their  own  names,  the  Otter,  the 


174  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

Badger  and  the  Wolverine,  form  respectively  the  fourth, 
fifth  and  sixth  groups  of  the  Weasel  family. 

The  Civets,  the  Bears  and  the  Raccoons  are  closely  al- 
lied to  the  Weasel  family;  but  there  is  no  generic  connec- 
tion between  any  of  them,  and  each  must  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  a  separate  family. 


THE  PAHMI. 

The  Pahmi  (Helictis-napelensis  or  ferrogrisea),  some- 
times called  the  "Chinese  Stone  Marten"  by  the  Leipzig 
skin  dealers,  is  an  animal  whose  skins  have  lately  come 
into  favor,  and  it  is  estimated  that  more  than  eighty 
thousand  pelts  were  marketed  in  1913,  causing  a  marked 
advance  in  the  price.  The  Pahmi  is  principally  found 
in  the  Central  Provinces  of  China,  where  it  is  also 
known  as  the  "Grej^  Marmot."  Different  varieties  of  the 
genus  showing  considerable  variation  in  color  are  also 
found  in  Nepal  and  Sikkin,  and  on  the  Island  of  Formosa. 
It  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  Stinking  Badger  (Mydaus- 
miliceps)  that  the  Germans  have  also  named  the  Pahmi, 
Stinkdachs. 

The  under  fur  is  thick  and  silky,  but  the  glossy  top 
hair  is  coarse.  The  top  hair  of  the  Helictis-napelensis 
is  a  dark  greyish  brown,  with  a  distinct  white  line 
running  down  the  middle  of  the  back  from  the  neck  to 
the  tail.  A  white  band  also  goes  nearly  to  the  back  on 
both  sides,  from  a  great  white  patch  that  covers  the 
throat  and  chest  like  a  baby's  bib.  The  under  fur  is 
light  yellow,  and  the  coarsely  haired  light  grey  tail  has 
a  white  point.  The  pelt  is  heavy.  The  Pahmi  lives 
under  ground,  in  burrows  of  its  own  construction,  but 
does  not  hibernate  in  winter.  It  is  probably  the  con- 
necting link  between  the  true  badgers  and  the  skunks, 
as  it  burrows  like  the  former,  and  discharges  a  fluid  after 
the  manner  of  the  latter,  although  it  cannot  throw  it  as 
far. 


The  Weasel  Family — ]\Iarten  Group.  175 


RUSSIAN  SABLE. 

The  most  important  animal  in  the  Marten  group  is  the 
Russian  Sable  (Mustela-zibellina).  By  many  it  is  consid- 
ered merely  as  a  variety  of  the  Pine  Marten,  distinguished 
by  the  greater  length  and  finer  quality  of  its  fur;  but  it 
also  has  a  much  more  distinctly  cone-shaped  head,  longer 
and  stouter  limbs  and  larger  feet.  Like  all  the  members 
of  the  Weasel  family,  the  Sable  has  a  habit  of  walking 
almost  entirely  on  its  toes,  and  its  short  and  compressed 
claws  are  capable  of  partial  retraction.  It  has  soft,  thick 
fur,  the  top  hairs  of  which  are  darker  and  glossier  than 
the  under  fur ;  in  fact,  the  value  of  a  Sable  as  well  as  of 
the  other  Martens  depends  upon  the  color  and  density  of 
the  top  coat.  The  skins  of  animals  taken  in  the  depths 
of  the  forests  where  the  sun's  rays  never  penetrate  the 
gloom  are  almost  black,  and  well  nigh  priceless  in  value ; 
but  ordinarily  the  color  varies  from  a  light  to  a  deep 
chestnut  brown,  and  is  uniform,  except  for  a  reddish  grey 
patch  on  the  throat,  and  a  mixture  of  black  and  grey  on 
the  cheeks  and  snout.  The  skins  are  worth  from  ten  to 
two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  each  raw.  There  are  furs 
that  cost  more,  per  skin,  than  Russian  Sable;  but  when 
the  size  of  the  animal  is  considered,  its  full  length  being 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches,  exclusive  of  the  seven  inch 
tail,  the  Russian  Sable  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  fur- 
bearing  animals. 

The  finest  Sables  are  the  large,  wide  stretched  skins 
received  from  the  Vitim  and  Olekma  river  districts,  on 
which  the  long,  glossy  top  hair  is  very  full  and  black. 
They  are  almost  equaled  in  quality  by  the  Bargusin  skins 
that  are  generally  stretched  a  little  more  in  the  length  by 
the  trappers.  The  skins  from  Jakutsk  are  smaller,  and 
have  browner  top  hair,  but  they  have  very  large  and  full 
silky  tails.  The  Okhotsk  Sables  are  smaller  and  browner 
still,  but  fine  and  full  furred. 

The  large  brown  Kamschatka  skins  that  come  to  the 
market  stretched  in  the  length,  have  many  silver  hairs  in 
the  top  coat.  The  Nerschinsk  Sables  are  also  well  silvered, 
but  are  coarser  furred.     Those  from  the  valley  of  the 


176  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

Yenesei  are  large  and  coarse  and  for  the  most  part  light 
in  color. 

Some  long,  thin-furred  skins  are  received  from  the  Altai 
mountain  section,  that  like  the  large,  coarse,  light-colored 
skins  from  Nekolaievsk,  Afghanistan  and  Turkistan,  are 
only  suitable  for  blending.  Many  of  the  small,  wide- 
stretehed,  brown  Sables  from  the  Amur  district  are,  how- 
ever, well  silvered  and  of  a  fair  quality. 

The  range  of  the  Sable  originally  extended  from  the 
Ural  Mountains  to  the  Bering  Sea,  and  from  the  moun- 
tains on  the  southern  border  of  Siberia  to  the  68th  parallel 
north  latitude.  Now  its  chief  haunts  are  in  the  mountain 
forests  of  Eastern  Siberia  and  Kamschatka. 

Sables  should  only  be  purchased  where  the  buyer  can 
have  the  fullest  confidence  in  the  representations  of  the 
dealer,  as  skins  that  have  been  taken  out  of  season,  or 
artificially  darkened,  are  often  palmed  off  upon  the 
uninitiated  as  prime  or  natural. 

The  Sable  is  a  nocturnal  animal,  averse  to  the  presence 
of  mankind,  and  inclining  to  the  least  known  and  most 
inaccessible  parts  of  the  country.  It  subsists  upon  hares, 
birds,  fish  and  every  living  thing  it  can  kill.  Sables  make 
their  nests  in  holes  in  the  trees,  and  bring  forth  one  lit- 
ter of  four  or  five  young  each  year.  Formerly  they  were 
caught  in  traps;  but  now  they  are  generally  hunted  with 
dogs  who  either  run  them  down,  or  drive  them  into  trees 
from  which  they  are  knocked  with  long  poles  into  nets 
stretched  to  receive  them.  A  hunter  who  succeeds  in  cap- 
turing twenty  Sables  in  a  season  is  considered  lucky. 
Hunting  the  Sable  in  the  midst  of  winter  and  tremendous 
snows  is  a  dangerous  task.  Is  is  largely  to  the  pursuit 
of  this  animal  that  we  owe  the  discovery  of  the  eastern 
provinces  of  Siberia. 


HUDSON  BAY  SABLE. 

The  American,  or  Brown,  Marten  (Mustela-americana) 
is  generally  known  as  the  Hudson  Bay  Sable;  although 
strictly  speaking,  it  is  more  like  the  Pine  Marten  than  the 
Russian  Sable  in  color  and  habits.  It  is  found  in  the 
forests  of  North  America  in  the  Hudson's  Bay  district, 


The  Weasel  Family — Marten  Group.  177 

and  to  some  extent  in  Labrador  and  Alaska,  and  is  some- 
times met  with  as  far  south  as  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
in  New  York.  It  never  ventures  near  the  habitations  of 
man ;  and  while  gentle  in  appearance,  when  it  attacks  an 
animal  larger  than  itself  it  becomes  as  fierce  as  a  tiger. 
One  strange  peculiarity  about  the  Brown  Marten  is  the 
fact,  that  while  in  some  years  as  high  as  one  hundred 
thousand  pelts  are  taken,  at  other  times  they  are  very 
scarce;  the  periods  of  scarcity  recurring  at  regular  inter- 
vals of  ten  years. 

The  skins  are  at  their  best  when  the  animal  is  taken 
in  November,  and  are  worth  raw  from  fifteen  to  forty-five 
dollars  each,  some  choice  specimens  even  bringing  as 
high  as  ninety  dollars.  The  color  of  the  fur  is  brown,  but 
of  a  more  reddish  cast  than  that  of  the  Russian  Sable. 
As  in  the  case  of  its  European  cogener  the  value  depends 
upon  the  color,  density  and  silky  gloss  of  the  top  hair, 
rather  than  upon  the  nature  of  the  under  fur.  The  head 
and  ears  are  grey,  and  the  breast  spot  is  yellow. 

American  Martens  are  generally  taken  in  wooden  traps 
set  up  in  line  by  the  hunters  for  miles  across  the  country. 

In  Labrador  Martens  are  large  and  rich  in  fur,  but 
very  scarce,  the  same  is  true  of  Nova  Scotia.  The  skins 
received  from  Alaska  are  large,  but  the  fur  is  coarse 
and  light  in  color,  occasionally  being  entirely  white.  The 
skins  from  the  East  Maine  and  Fort  George  districts  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  territory  are  the  finest  and  darkest, 
some  of  them  being  almost  black. 


PINE  MARTEN. 

The  typical  representative  of  the  Martens  is  the  yel- 
low breasted  Pine  Marten  (Mustela-martes).  Its  range 
is  in  the  higher  latitudes  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  but 
one  species  is  found  as  far  south  as  India  and  the  Malayan 
region.  It  has  a  sharply-pointed  muzzle  with  nose  ex- 
tending far  beyond  the  ]ip,  and  ears  that  are  thickly  cov- 
ered with  fur  on  both  sides.  The  length  of  the  body  is 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches,  and  the  bushy  tail  is  from 
nine  to  twelve  inches  long.     The  fur  is  of  a  rich  brown 


178  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

color  at  the  top,  with  a  reddish  grey  tint  to  the  under  coat, 
and  a  white,  yellowish  or  bright  orange  patch  on  the 
throat.  The  soles  of  the  feet  have  a  thick  coat  of  fur  be- 
tween the  bare  pads.  This  animal  is  arboreal  in  its  habits 
and  averse  to  the  open  country,  but  remains  in  the  bosom 
of  the  forest  ranging  through  the  thickets,  or  creeping 
from  branch  to  branch  of  the  towering  trees,  where  its 
sharp  claws  aid  it  in  procuring  a  firm  hold.  When  domesti- 
cated it  is  said  Pine  Martens  will  eat  fruit,  but  in  their 
natural  state  they  subsist  entirely  upon  mice,  rats,  moles, 
and  poultry ;  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea  they  sup- 
plement this  diet  with  mussels.  They  can  be  domesticated 
and  taught  to  eat  fruit. 

The  skins  of  the  Pine  Martens,  like  those  of  the  Sable, 
are  used  principally  either  in  the  natural  color  or  dyed 
for  the  manufacture  of  muffs  and  neck  pieces.  When 
blended  it  is  hard  to  distinguish  the  fur  of  the  Pine  Mar- 
ten from  that  of  the  Sable ;  in  fact  even  in  their  natural 
color  it  is  sometimes  difficult  for  any  one  but  an  expert  to 
tell  some  of  the  finer  skins  from  Hudson  Bay  Sable. 


BEECH  MARTEN. 

The  white-breasted  Beech  or  Stone  Marten  (Mustela- 
foina),  is  much  more  common  than  the  Pine  Marten;  in- 
habiting the  whole  of  central  Europe,  parts  of 
European  Kussia,  Asia  Minor,  and  some  sections  of  North 
America.  Although  a  frequenter  of  woods  and  trees  this 
animal  is  more  often  found  among  rocks  and  stones,  and 
has  therefore  been  called  stein-marder,  or  stone  marten,  by 
the  Germans.  The  fur  is  coarser  than  that  of  the  other 
Martens  and  different  in  color ;  the  roots  of  the  fur  being 
of  ash  color,  the  middle  of  chestnut  and  the  points  black, 
giving  to  the  whole  a  greyish  brown  effect.  The  Turkistan 
and  Afghanistan  skins  have  beautiful,  long,  glossy  black 
top  hairs  and  very  pale  ashy  under  fur.  They  were  once 
regarded  as  belonging  to  a  distinct  species,  but  are  now 
considered  a  variety  of  the  foina.  The  Beech  Marten  is 
bolder  than  the  other  members  of  its  family,  being  fre- 
quently found  in  the  neighborhood  of  human  habitations, 
and  sometimes  even  making  its  nest  in  an  old  barn  or 


The  Weasel  Family — Marten  Group.  179 

granary,  although  generally  its  abode  carefully  formed  of 
hay  and  straw  is  found  in  a  hole  in  a  tree,  or  in  a  crannie 
between  rocks.  The  young,  generally  four  or  five  in  num- 
ber, are  born  early  in  the  spring;  and  are  blind  for  the 
first  two  weeks  of  their  existence.  The  food  of  the  Beech 
Marten  consists  of  mice,  rats,  rabbits  and  all  kinds  of 
birds;  and  no  dove  cote,  however  lofty  it  may  be,  is  safe 
when  a  Marten  is  in  the  neighborhood.  Beech  Martens 
make  a  mewing  sound,  not  unlike  that  of  a  cat,  and  a  pair 
of  them  in  a  tree  may  be  heard  quite  a  distance.  They 
are  exceedingly  bloodthirsty,  but  they  have  such  a  fond- 
ness for  certain  kinds  of  fruits,  like  cherries  and  plums, 
that  in  some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  the  trunks  of 
fruit  trees  are  washed  with  tobacco-juic^,  or  petroleum,  to 
keep  them  away. 

Natural  Stone  Marten  fur  has  not  been  very  popular 
for  some  time,  but  many  of  the  skins  are  being  dyed  to 
imitate  blended  Sable,  and  this  creates  a  demand  which 
serves  to  keep  the  price  about  normal. 

Professor  Kolleston  thought  that  the  Ailouvos  of  the 
Greeks  was  a  white  breasted  Beech  Marten.  The  darkest 
skins  come  from  Spain,  Italy  and  France ;  and  the  finest 
from  Bosnia.  Stone  Martens  are  very  numerous  in  Rus- 
sia, but  their  fur  is  coarse  and  light  in  color. 

The  Japanese  Marten  (Mustela-melanopus)  has  a  yellow- 
ish underfur,  almost  white. 


INDIAN  MARTEN. 

The  Indian  Marten  (Mustela-flavigula),  is  the  hand- 
somest member  of  the  group.  It  is  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
two  inches  long,  with  a  seventeen  to  twenty  inch  tail.  It 
can  be  distinguished  by  its  beautiful  coloration.  The  fur 
is  generally  short,  but  longer  on  the  animals  caught  on  the 
Himalayas  than  on  those  taken  in  the  Nilgiri  section.  The 
color  of  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  neck,  rump,  tail  and 
limbs  is  a  blackish  brown  or  black,  the  middle  of  the  back 
being  of  a  paler  brown;  the  chin  and  upper  part  of  the 
throat  are  white,  the  lower  part  of  the  throat  and  chest 
being  orange,  brownish  yellow,  or  pure  yellow.  This  ani- 
mal is  found  only  on  the  densely  wooded  hills,  and  is  not 


180  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

often  seen,  although  its  range  extends  from  the  Himalayas, 
where  it  is  generally  found  at  an  elevation  of  from  7,000  to 
8,000  feet,  to  Nilgiri.  This  species  generally  travel  in  par- 
ties of  five  or  six,  and  give  utterance  to  a  low  chuckle,  which 
becomes  a  harsh  cry  when  they  are  excited. 

FISHER. 

The  largest  member  of  the  Marten  group  is  the  Fisher 
(Mustela-pennanti),  known  also  as  the  Pekan,  Fisher 
Marten,  Pennant's  Marten,  ''Black  Fox''  and  "Black 
Cat;"  the  two  last  titles  having  been  given  it  because  in 
size,  color  and  build  it  resembles  the  fox,  and  cat,  more 
than  it  does  the  Weasel.  The  length  of  the  body  is 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches,  and  the  tail  is  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long.  The  general  color  of  the 
fur  is  a  blackish  brown  becoming  grey  at  the  head  and 
neck,  but  showing  no  light  colored  patch  at  the  throat. 

The  range  of  the  Fisher  covers  the  greater  part  of 
North  America  from  the  upper  part  of  Texas  to  Alaska, 
but  continual  hunting  has  exterminated  the  animal  in 
the  sections  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  It  is  nocturnal 
and  aboreal  in  habit  and  very  agile,  often  leaping  from 
tree  to  tree  in  pursuit  of  its  prey.  Its  nests  are  found  in 
holes  in  trees,  high  above  the  ground.  The  skins  are  at 
their  best  in  the  northern  country  from  October  to  May, 
and  the  customary  mode  of  capturing  the  animal  is  by 
means  of  set  traps. 

The  name  Fisher  is  evidently  a  misnomer,  for  while  it 
will  eat  any  fish  that  may  come  in  its  way  it  does  not 
catch  fish  for  itself,  and  makes  its  home  in  the  swamps 
and  on  the  wooded  sides  of  the  mountains,  away  from  the 
water,  feeding  principally  on  snakes  and  porcupines, 
varying  the  diet  occasionally  by  devouring  one  of  its  own 
cogeners. 

The  fur  is  coarser  and  not  as  valuable  as  that  of  the 
American  Marten,  but  it  is  handsome  and  durable,  and  in 
fair  demand  for  fine  neck  pieces  and  muffs.  In  the  Euro- 
pean markets  the  Fisher  is  generally  known  as  the  Vir- 
ginia Polecat. 

It  brings  forth  its  young  in  April  or  May,  producing 
from  two  to  four  at  a  birth. 


The  Weasel  Family — Marten  Group.  181 

MINK. 

The  true  Mink  (Mustela-vison)  is  confined  to  North 
America,  but  the  Mustela-lutreola,  called  Nerz  or  Sump- 
otter  by  the  Germans,  has  rightly  been  classed  as  the 
European  Mink,  in  spite  of  essential  differences  in  struc- 
ture, and  quality.  A  white  upper  lip  always  characterizes 
the  European  varieties.  Minks  of  inferior  quality  that 
are  classed  as  local  varieties  of  the  Russian  Mink,  are 
also  found  in  Japan,  and  China  where  they  are  generally 
called  Chinese  Weasels. 

The  Mink  is  distinguished  from  the  other  members  of 
its  genus  by  a  narrower  muzzle,  longer  premolar  teeth, 
and  a  partial  webbing  of  the  toes.  Like  all  members  of 
the  Marten  group  the  Mink  has  a  bushy  tail,  about  half 
the  length  of  its  body  which  measures  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches.  The  pelage  consists  of  a  soft,  dense 
under-fur  mixed  with  long,  stiff,  glossy  hairs,  the  latter 
being  most  in  evidence  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 
The  color  varies  from  a  light,  yellowish  brown  in  the 
poorer  representatives  of  the  species,  to  a  rich  chocolate 
in  the  finer  grades.  The  chin  is  always  white,  and  small 
irregular  patches  of  white  are  often  found  on  the  under 
part  of  the  body.  The  Mink  ranges  over  the  greater  part 
of  North  America;  the  choicest  specimens  coming  from 
Maine  and  Nova  Scotia;  next  in  value  are  those  from 
Canada,  New  York  and  New  England ;  the  poorest  Ameri- 
can qualities  come  from  the  southern  section  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  intermediate  grades  from  the  cen- 
tral, western  and  northwestern  states. 

The  Mink  is  an  amphibious  solitary  animal,  semi- 
aquatic  in  habit,  living  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  streams 
and  lakes.  The  young,  four  or  five  to  a  litter,  are  born 
early  in  the  spring,  and  remain  with  the  mother  until  the 
autumn.  The  Mink  is  a  good  diver  and  swimmer,  and 
can  remain  under  the  water  a  long  time;  it  has  been 
known  to  pursue  and  catch  as  agile  a  fish  as  the  brook 
trout ;  and  as  an  evidence  of  its  remarkable  strength,  it  is 
said  that  a  Mink  has  been  seen  to  drag  a  mallard  duck 
a  mile  to  its  hole  so  that  its  mate  could  join  in  the  feast 
provided  by  so  much  effort.  This  animal  has  a  keen 
sense  of  smell  and  wonderful  tenacity  of  life,  a  case  being 


182  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

recorded  where  a  Mink  was  found  alive  twenty-four 
hours  after  it  was  crushed  flat  by  a  falling  tree. 

The  fur  of  the  Mink  is  used  for  muffs,  neckwear,  coats, 
linings,  trimmings,  and  sleigh  robes.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  furs  this  season  and  it  is  never  entirely  out 
of  style,  although  at  some  times  it  is  less  popular  with 
wearers  of  furs  than  at  others. 

The  Russian  Mink  is  a  good  size  and  dark  in  color,  but 
it  has  a  flatter  appearance  than  that  of  the  American 
Mink  because  the  fur  is  shorter  and  the  top  hairs  are  not 
so  long  and  numerous. 


KOLINSKY. 

The  Kolinsky  or  Siberian  Mink  (Mustela-sibirica),  also 
known  as  the  Chorok,  Red  Sable  and  Tartar  Sable,  is  the 
connecting  link  between  the  Marten  and  Polecat  groups 
of  the  Weasel  family.  The  Tartars  call  it  the  Kulon.  It 
is  about  fifteen  inches  long,  has  an  eight-inch  tail,  and  the 
fur  is  of  a  rich  brown  or  tawny  color.  This  animal  is 
found  in  the  district  east  of  the  Yenesei  River,  and  has 
for  some  time  received  favorable  consideration  from  the 
furriers,  by  whom  it  is  now  dyed  to  imitate  the  Marten 
and  Sable,  the  same  as  they  dye  Japanese  and  Chinese 
Mink  to  make  a  cheap  substitute  for  American  blended 
Mink. 

The  hairs  of  the  tail  of  this  animal  are  sometimes  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  brushes. 


THE  WEASEL. 

The  Common  Weasel  (Mustela-vulgaris),  is  distin- 
guished from  the  Polecats  by  its  smaller  size,  slender  body 
and  differences  in  cranial  development,  as  well  as  the  fact 
that  its  winter  coat  is  different  in  color  from  its  summer 
covering.  The  range  of  this  animal  extends  over  all 
Europe,  Northern  and  Central  Asia,  and  a  large  part  of 
North  America.  It  is  about  eight  inches  long,  and  its 
tail  will  measure  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  inches. 
The  throat  and  under  parts  of  the  body  are  always  white, 
but  the  outside  of  the  limbs  and  the  back  are  a  dark 


The  Weasel  Family — Weasel  Group. 


183 


brown  in  summer,  often  changing  to  white  in  winter.  It  is 
a  bold  and  inquisite  animal,  w^hose  food  consists  of  small 
birds,  mice,  etc.,  but  it  will  seldom  attack  a  rabbit  or  a 
poultry-yard.  It  is  quick  of  movement,  has  a  strong  power 


Indian  Weasel. 

of  scent,  and  follows  the  small  animals  on  w^hich  it  preys 
to  their  hiding  places.  Common  Weasels  bring  forth  from 
four  to  five  young,  and  generally  live  in  a  nest  of  dry  leaves 
placed  in  a  hole  in  a  cave  or  a  hollow  tree. 


Tayra. 


THE  TAYRA. 

The  Tayra  or  Taira  (Galictis-barbara),  is  found  in 
Central  and  South  America.  It  is  the  largest  member  of 
the  Weasel  group  measuring  over  twenty  inches,  exclusive 
of  the  tail  which  is  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  It  is  dark 
brown  above  and  yellowish  on  the  under  part  of  the 
body.  Tayras  often  hunt  in  companies  for  the  small 
animals  upon  which  they  prey. 


184  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


THE  GRISON. 


The  Grison  ( Galictis-vittata) ,  has  its  habitat  in  Cen- 
tral and  South  America,  and  Mexico.  It  is  about  the  size 
of  a  Marten,  and  is  black  in  color  except  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  back  and  tail,  where  the  long  hair  is  bluish  grey. 
The  sharp  contrast  between  the  grey  crown  and  black 
face  gives  this  animal  a  vicious  look  in  keeping  with  its 
savage  disposition.  It  lives  in  hollow  trees,  holes  in  the 
ground,  and  clefts  in  the  rock.  It  feeds  on  small  mam- 
mals and  birds.  Like  the  other  Weasels  it  destroys  the 
poultry  in  settled  districts.  The  odor  it  emits  is,  if  pos- 
sible, more  nauseating  than  that  of  the  skunk. 

Allemand's  Grison  (Galictis-allemandi),  a  larger  and 
lees  common  species  of  this  genus,  has  the  same  range  as 
the  above.  The  skins  of  these  animals  have  no  commercial 
value,  and  they  are  only  noticed  here  because  of  their 
connection  with  the  Weasel  family. 


ERMINE. 

'  The  most  important  member  of  the  Weasel  group  is  the 
Stoat  or  Ermin^  (Mustela-erminea),  sometimes  called  the 
greater  Weasel.  The  fur  of  common  Weasels  is  often  sold  as 
Ermine,  but  the  winter  dress  of  the  Stoat  is  the  only  true 
Ermine.  ^The  Stoat  though  closely  allied  to  the  common 
Weasel  and  of  similar  habits  is  its  superior  in  size,  and  in 
the  purity  and  depth  of  its  fur;  another  distinguishing 
•feature  is  the  black  tip  on  its  tail  which  never  changes 
color  even  when  the  rest  of  the  fur  turns  white. 

The  habitat  of  the  Stoat,  like  that  of  the  common 
Weasel,  is  spread  over  a  large  portion  of  the  globe;  the 
finest  representatives  of  the  species  being  found  in 
Siberia,  British  North  America  and  Alaska.  In  the  higher 
latitudes  it  invariably  assumes  the  white  winter  dress 
which  characterizes  the  Ermine.  This  change  also  takes 
place  in  winter  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  the 
United  States  as  far  south  as  Pennsylvania,  New  York 
and  Massachusetts.  Partly  white  specimens  have  even 
been  taken  at  times  in  Virginia  but  in  the  milder  climates 


The  Weasel  Family — Weasel  Group.  185 

the  fur  is  generally  of  a  tawny  brown  color  above  all 
the  year  round.  Various  reasons  have  been  advanced 
by  different  authorities  for  the  change  of  color  the  Stoat 


Stoat  in  Summer  Dress. 

undergoes  at  different  seasons,  and  all  seem  to  agree  that 
the  change  is  due  to  the  necessity  of  the  color  of  the 
animal  being  adapted  to  its  external  surroundings,  as  it 
is  noted  that  the  change  of  color  seems  to  be  determined 
by  the  presence  or  absence  of  snow  in  its  habitat.  The 
native  of  the  far  north  have  a  legend  that  the  white  coat 


Stoat  in  Winter  Pelage. 

is  given  to  the  Ermine  by  the  Creator  to  enable  it  to 
escape  the  notice,  as  it  travels  over  the  frozen  wastes,  of 
large  and  powerful  enemies  against  whom  it  could  not 
contend. 

The  haunts  of  the  Stoat  are  in  stony  places  and  im- 
penetrable thickets  that  afford  it  a  refuge  from  the  larger 
animals.     It  lives  on  poultry,  game  and  smaller  animals; 


186  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

and  it  is  claimed  that  when  food  is  abundant  it  will  only 
suck  the  blood  and  eat  the  brains  of  its  victims,  leaving 
the  flesh  untouched.  The  Stoat  moves  very  rapidly  and 
hunts  its  prey  by  day  and  by  night.  It  is  a  good  climber  and 
also  a  good  swimmer,  although  not  an  aquatic  animalN,  The 
young  are  produced  in  the  spring,  the  usual  number  to  a 
litter  being  five  to  twelve.  The  full-grown  animal  is  about 
seven  to  twelve  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail  which 
will  measure  about  four  inches. 

Royal  in  its  beauty,  the  fur  of  the  Ermine  has  at  all 
times  adorned  the  state  robes  of  kings  and  queens,  and 
has  always  been  in  favor  for  occasions  w^here  full  dress 
was  demanded.  At  present  it  is  very  popular  for  street 
wear  as  well  and  the  price  is  very  high  for  the  better 
grades. 

The  fur  of  the  Ermine  when  made  up  with  black  spots 
instead  of  tails  is  called  minever,  the  whitest  skins  come 
from  Ischimer.  Good  medium  grades,  with  extra  fine 
full  furred  tails  that  are  black  half  their  length,  are 
received  from  Tomsky  and  Perchorsky.  The  smaller  skins 
from  Jakutsky  and  Janiseisky  are  white  but  flat,  and  the 
Lasky  skins  have  no  black  points  on  the  tails.  The  Bara- 
binsky  skins  are  the  largest  and  best  of  the  Siberian 
Ermines.  The  skins  are  put  up  for  sale  in  ''timbers"  of 
forty  skins  each. 


THE  FERRET. 

Zoologists  are  now  agreed  that  the  Ferret  (Putorius- 
furor),  with  its  pink  eyes  and  yellowish  white  color,  is 
merely  a  variety  of  the  Polecat,  modified  by  the  effect  of 
long  continued  captivity.  Ferrets  came  originally  from 
Spain  and  Barbary,  but  now  are  bred  for  rabbit  and  rat 
hunting  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The  Fer- 
ret has  no  strong  local  attachment  and  therefore  must 
be  carefully  secured. 

As  is  the  case  with  most  domesticated  animals  Ferrets 
are  more  prolific  than  their  wild  allies;  the  young  are 
usually  born  in  the  spring,  but  sometimes  there  are  two  lit- 
ters a  year  of  from  five  to  ten  each.  The  Ferret  will  al- 
most invariably  seize  a  rabbit  behind  the  ears. 


The  Weasel  Family — Polecat  Group.  187 


THE  SKUNK. 

A  well  known  scientist,  when  asked  if  the  Skunk  was 
a  polecat,  replied:  "Yes — and  more  too."  Cuvier  ex- 
plains the  meaning  of  this  remark  when  he  says :  ''Among 
a  family  remarkable  for  its  stench,  the  Skunk  (Mephitis- 
mephitica)  is  distinguished  by  a  sort  of  stench  far  ex- 
ceeding that  of  the  remaining  species.  The  odor  it  pro- 
duces resembles  that  of  the  Polecat,  mixed  with  a  strong 
smell  of  garlic — nothing  could  be  more  nauseous";  any 
one  who  has  encountered  it,  will  know  why  the  French 
formerly  called  this  animal  "enfan-du-diable" — ^the  child 
of  the  devil. 

Like  the  Polecats,  the  Skunk  has  thirty-four  teeth; 
two  false  molars  above,  and  three  below ;  but  the  superior 
tuberculous  one  is  very  large,  and  as  long  as  it  is  broad, 
and  the  inferior  carnivorous  has  two  tubercles  on  its 
inner  side;  circumstances  which  ally  it  to  the  Badger, 
just  as  the  Polecat  approximates  to  the  Grison  and  the 
Glutton.  The  anterior  nails  of  the  Skunk,  like  those  of 
the  Badger,  are  long  and  fitted  for  digging,  and  they  are 
moreover  semi-plantigrade.  The  American  Skunk  has 
sometimes  been  called  the  Fitchet  of  Pennant.  Its  general 
color  is  brownish  black  with  a  white  tip  on  the  head.  It  is 
marked  on  the  back  with  white  stripes  of  considerable 
individual  variation,  narrow  in  some  and  wide  in  other 
specimens,  but  all  have  the  white  spot  on  the  head,  and  a 
white  tip  at  the  end  of  the  long,  bushy  tail,  which  they 
carry  curved  over  the  back  when  walking.  The  slightly 
curved  claws  are  set  in  straight  toes.  The  head  is  small, 
and  the  ears  are  short  and  round,  and  the  stoutly  built 
body  is  moderately  elongated.  It  is  terrestrial  and  fos- 
sorial  in  its  habits. 

The  Skunks  make  their  homes  in  holes  in  the  ground, 
in  hollow  trees,  or  in  crannies  in  the  rocks.  They  are 
good  climbers  but  prefer  the  clearings  and  the  open 
glades  to  the  dense  forests.  The  young  are  born  in  the 
spring,  six  to  ten  in  number,  and  remain  with  the  mother 
until  the  following  spring.  Dr.  Merriam  says,  that 
when  captured   early  in  life,   Skunks  make    pretty    and 


188  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

agreeable  pets,  gentle  in  manner,  and  cleanly  in  habits. 
They  feed  on  insects,  birds,  eggs,  frogs,  mice  and  rab- 
bits, sometimes  even  leaves  and  berries.  Several  families 
of  Skunks  will  live  in  one  burrow. 

It  is  hard  to  intimidate  a  Skunk  as  besides  being  of  a 
fearless  and  unsuspicious  nature,  it  seems  to  be  conscious 
of  the  power  it  possesses  of  putting  all  enemies  to  rout 
with  the  nauseous  artillery  which  it  can  at  all  times 
bring  to  bear  on  the  object  of  its  wrath.  This  secretion, 
with  its  penetrating,  lasting,  never-to-be-forgotten  odor, 
is  contained  in  a  pair  of  glands  located  under  the  tail; 
and  can  be  ejected  at  the  will  of  the  animal  with  such 
force  that  the  fluid  w^ill  carry  from  thirteen  to  sixteen 
feet,  as  many  unfortunate  victims  can  testify.  Strange 
as  it  may  seem  the  flesh  is  said  to  be  white,  tender  and 
highly  palatable.  Skunks  are  caught  in  traps.  The  finest 
skins  come  from  Ohio,  and  the  country  east  of  that  state. 
Western  and  southern  skins  are  coarser  and  not  so  full 
furred.  Skunk  farming  is  carried  on  successfully  in  dif- 
ferent sections  of  the  country. 

Whatever  we  may  think  of  the  Skunk  otherwise,  its 
fur  is  certainly  worthy  of  the  high  regard  in  which  it  is 
held  by  the  public.  Many  wearers  of  "Alaska  Sable" 
and  ''Black  Marten"  furs,  have  no  suspicion  that  their 
beautiful  muffs  and  neck  pieces  are  made  of  Skunk 
skins,  for  when  properly  dressed  and  cured  the  skins 
soon  lose  the  objectionable  odor,  which  has  made  the 
useful  and  handsome  Skunk  famous — or  infamous. 

The  natural  black  skins  are  the  most  valuable,  and 
w^here  the  w^hite  stripes  are  not  too  large  they  are  cut 
out  by  the  furriers,  so  the  l^alance  of  the  skin  can  be 
used  in  its  natural  color,  which  is  a  brownish  black  on 
top,  and  deep  grey  at  the  roots.  The  white  skins,  and 
those  in  which  the  stripes  are  too  prominent,  are  dyed 
either  a  jet  black,  or  as  near  as  possible  to  the  natural 
color  of  the  skin.  Some  dyers  are  very  successful  in 
imitating  this  shade,  but  w^hen  the  natural  and  dyed 
skins  are  placed  side  by  side  it  is  easy  to  see  that  man 
at  his  best  is  only  a  poor  imitator  of  natural  products. 

The  Lesser  Skunk  (Mephitis-putorius),  sometimes  re- 
ferred  to   as   the   Little   Striped   Skunk,    and   for   some 


The  Weasel  Family — Polecat  Group. 


189 


unaccountable  reason  called  ''civet"  by  the  furriers,  be- 
longs to  the  same  genus  as  the  common  Skunk,  but  it  is 
a  much  smaller  animal,  with  different  cranial  character- 
istics, and  it  has  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  Poelcat.  It  also 
differs  in  the  white  markings  which  it  shows  in  an  endless 
variety  of  detail  on  its  black  fur,  but  which  are  always 
so  arranged  as  to  form  a  lyre,  more  clearly  defined  on 
some  specimens  than  on  others.  This  animal  never  ex- 
ceeds a  foot  in  length,  and  its  tail  is  shorter  than  the 
head  and  body.  Its  range  is  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  as  far  south  as  Yucatan  and  Guate- 
mala. In  working  up  these  skins  no  attempt  is  made 
to  cut  out  the  white  stripes,  but  the  furriers  match  them 
so  that  on  the  finished  article  they  will  look  like  the  lines 
of  one  general  design.  The  largest  skins  come  from  the 
northern  part  of  its  habitat,  the  animals  growing  smaller, 
coarser  and  fatter  as  they  go  south. 


Lesser  Skunk. 


Skunk. 


Nearly  allied  to  the  above  species  is  the  long  tailed 
Skunk  (Mustela-macrura),  of  Mexico,  w^hose  tail  is  longer 
than  the  head  and  body  combined. 

There  is  a  white  backed  Skunk  in  South  America 
(Conepatus-mapurito),  which  is  heavier  than  the  others 
t^nd  has  a  more  pig-like  snout  with  nostrils  directed  down- 


190  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

ward  instead  of  laterally.  It  has  only  thirty-two  teeth, 
extremely  small  ears,  and  a  shorter  tail  than  the  other 
species.  The  body  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
long,  and  generally  marked  on  the  back  with  two  very 
wide  white  stripes;  the  under  part  is  always  black,  and 
the  tail  is  white  and  black.  Its  range  is  from  Patagonia 
and  Chili,  through  Central  America,  as  far  north  as 
Texas. 

In  Nicaraugua  the  Skunk  goes  along  at  night  with  its 
tail  up  as  a  danger  signal.  Naturalists  claim  that  the 
conspicuous  markings  of  the  Skunk  are  "w^arning  colors" 
that  are  a  benefit  to  the  species  as  well  as  its  enemies,  as 
many  a  time  a  man  who  would  hesitate  a  long  time  be- 
fore hunting  a  Skunk,  would  take  a  shot  at  an  animal  of 
whose  identity  he  was  not  certain. 

The  gait  of  the  Skunk  is  a  measured  walk,  but  it  can 
shuffle  along  at  a  pretty  good  speed  if  necessary.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  animal  is  its  indifference  to  the  presence 
of  man,  which  is  evidenced  by  its  being  so  often  run  over 
by  vehicles. 


POLECATS. 

Polecats  are  the  most  sanguinary  of  all  the  Weasel 
tribe.  They  are  larger  and  more  powerful  than  the 
Skunks  and  Weasels,  but  as  a  rule  are  smaller  in  size 
and  have  shorter  legs  than  the  Martens.  They  were 
formerly  known  as  Foulmart  (Foul-Marten)  because  of 
their  fetid  smell,  due  to  a  secretion  carried  by  these  ani- 
mals in  small  glands.  They  are  the  terror  of  poultry 
yards  and  warrens,  for  while  they  are  less  active  than  the 
Martens,  they  not  only  work  havoc  with  the  rabbits,  poul- 
try, birds  and  small  rodents,  but  also  destroy  the  eggs  and 
young  of  their  prey  in  their  burrows  and  nests.  The 
lower  carnivorous  tooth  of  the  Polecat  has  no  inner 
tubercle,  and  the  superior  tuberculous  one  is  more  broad 
than  long;  there  are  two  false  molars  above  and  three 
below;  they  can  also  be  distinguished  from  the  Weasels 
and  the  other  Martens  by  the  absence  of  the  first  pair 
of  molars  in'both  jaws. 


The  Weasel  Family — Polecat  Group.  191 

Fitchet,  or  Fitch  Cat,  is  the  name  given  to  the  com- 
mon Polecat  of  Europe  (Mustela-putorius).  It  has  a  fur 
made  up  of  a  woolly  yellow  under-fur  showing  through 
long,  glossy  dark  top  hairs;  in  the  Russian  skins  the  under 
fur  is  almost  white.  The  body  of  this  animal  is  about  seven- 
teen inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail  which  measures 
about  six  inches.  It  is  a  nocturnal  animal  inhabiting 
the  deserted  burrows  of  other  animals  in  the  forest  and 
issuing  forth  at  night  for  its  depredations.  ** Fitch'*  was 
a  popular  fur  with  our  grandmothers,  and  at  present  has 
come  back  into  favor.  The  finest  darkest  skins  come  from 
Germany. 

The  Perwitsky  or  Sarmatian  Mottled  Polecat  (Putorius- 
sarmaticus),  is  a  distinct  species,  that  has  its  habitat  in 
the  wilds  of  Siberia,  Russia  and  Central  Asia — principally 
Afghanistan.  This  species  is  not  exclusively  nocturnal, 
but  it  passes  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  some  deserted 
rabbit  burrow,  or  in  a  deep,  dark  crannie  in  the  rocks  or 
an  opening  between  large  stones,  issuing  forth  at  night 
to  procure  food.  It  is  a  fearless,  ferocious  fighter,  and 
does  not  hesitate  to  attack  animals  many  times  its  size. 
Where  it  cannot  outspeed  its  victims  it  patiently  tracks 
them  until  it  can  steal  upon  them.  The  Perwitsky  is 
generally  caught  in  traps;  sometimes  it  is  smoked  out  of 
its  burrow  into  a  net  spread  over  the  opening;  and 
occasionally  it  is  roped  as  it  escapes  to  the  trees.  The 
fur  of  this  species  is  of  an  orange  color,  with  irregular 
brown  spots  on  the  upper  part  very  much  like  the  thighs 
of  the  Russian  Sable  in  color  and  texture,  underneath  it 
has  glossy  black  fur.  It  is  a  much  smaller  animal  than 
the  common  Polecat,  measuring  from  seven  to  ten  inches 
in  length.  Like  that  of  the  Fitch,  the  fur  of  the  Per- 
witsky was  very  much  in  vogue  fifty  years  ago,  but  for  a 
long  time  was  neglected  by  the  furriers ;  it  is  in  de- 
mand again  at  the  present  time,  being  admirably  suited 
to  the  effects  which  the  designers  are  producing  in  this 
season's  garments. 

The  Black-footed  Polecat  of  North  America  (Mephitis- 
migripis),  is  found  in  the  Central  plateau  of  the  United 
States  as  far  south  as  Texas.  It  is  larger  than  the  com- 
mon species,  measuring  about  nineteen  inches  exclusive 
of  the  tail  which  is  about  five  and  one-half  inches  long. 


192 


Carnivora  Fissipedia, 


It  is  of  a  brownish  white  color,  with  the  feet,  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  and  a  broad  stripe  across  the  forehead  black.  It 
shows  the  distribution  of  dark  and  light  colors  character- 
istic of  all  members  of  this  family. 

Other  unimportant  species  of  this  animal  are  the  Si- 
berian Polecat  (Mustela-eversmanni),  which  can  be  distin- 
guished by  certain  differences  in  the  form  of  the  skull 
and  its  nearly  white  back  and  head ;  and  the  Tibetan  Pole- 
cat (Mustela-larvata),  found  in  Ladok  and  Tibet. 


Polecat. 


The  Cape  Polecat  of  South  Africa  (Itonyx-zorilla),  is 
so  much  like  a  small  Skunk  that  it  is  often  taken  for  a 
member  of  the  same  group;  the  teeth,  however,  are 
smaller  and  more  like  those  of  the  Polecat  between  which 
and  the  Skunks  it  appears  to  be  a  connecting  link.  Both 
in  size  and  shape  it  is  like  the  Polecat.  It  has  a  broad 
head,  small  rounded  ears,  and  a  very  sharp  muzzle;  the 
tail  is  bushy,  and  about  three  quarters  of  the  length 
of  the  body  which  measures  about  twelve  inches.  The 
fur  is  glossy  black  and  marked  with  white  stripes  and 
spots.  The  upper  part  of  the  tail  is  mostly  white,  and 
there  are  always  some  white  spots  on  the  head  and  tail. 
Its  range  is  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Senegal. 


The  Weasel  Family — Polecat  Group.  193 

Another  species  of  the  Zorilla  is  the  Itonyx-funata, 
which  is  found  in  Egypt,  and  ranges  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez  into  Asia  Minor.  This  animal  frequents  the  rocky 
districts,  and  is  purely  nocturnal;  it  is  not  able  to  climb 
like  the  Martens  and  Polecats,  and  only  takes  to  the 
water  when  compelled  to  do  so.  It  has  an  odor  as  in- 
tolerable as  that  of  the  Skunk,  but  it  is  found  in  many  of 
the  homes  of  the  Dutch  Boers  in  South  Africa,  where  it 
is  kept  to  destroy  vermin. 

The  South  African  Weasel  (Poecilogali-albinucha), 
with  one  exception  the  only  Weasel  found  in  Africa  south 
of  the  Sahara,  is  almost  exactly  like  the  Cape  Polecat 
in  coloration  and  marking.  It  is  placed  in  a  distinct 
genus  because  it  has  two  pairs  of  premolar  teeth  in  each 
jaw,  while  generally  there  is  only  a  single  pair  in  the 
lower  jaw  of  the  Polecats. 


THE  BADGERS. 

The  Badger,  which  Linnaeus  placed  with  the  Bears, 
but  which  is  now  conceded  to  belong  to  the  Weasel  fam- 
ily, is  found  throughout  Europe,  Asia,  British  North 
America,  and  the  central  and  western  portion  of  the 
United  States;  the  best  species  coming  from  the  western 
continent.  In  some  places  it  is  called  the  Javanese  Skunk, 
because  of  its  offensive  odor.  The  Badger  is  of  a  shy 
and  retiring  disposition,  never  courting  danger,  but  when 
brought  to  bay  will  put  up  a  fierce  and  stubborn  fight. 
\  It  is  nocturnal,  lives  in  burrows  of  its  own  construction, 
and  in  the  colder  regions  hibernates  during  the  winter. 
It  is  partial  to  bird's  eggs  and  bee's  nests  with  their 
honey  and  larvae,  but  its  principal  food  consists  of  fowl 
and  the  various  species  of  small  rodents.  Badgers  are 
conspicuously  distinguished  by  a  pouch  beneath  the  tail, 
from  which  a  greasy,  fetid  secretion  exudes. 

This  animal  measures  about  two  feet  in  length,  ex- 
clusive of  the  six  inch  tail.  It  stands  low  on  its  legs,  is 
clumsy  in  its  movements,  has  a  long  snout,  and  long  claw^s 
peculiarly  adapted  for  digging.  The  American  Badger 
(Taxidea-americana)    has   a   light   yellowish   under   fur, 


194 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


covered  with  long  black  and  white  hairs  that  grow  much 
longer  on  the  sides  than  on  the  back;  and  the  skins  are 
used  principally  for  making  robes,  muffs  and  other  furs. 
The  European  or  Common  Badger  (Meles-taxus)  is  much 
coarser  and  darker  than  the  American  species;  and  the 
hairs  of  most  of  the  skins  of  this  variety  are  used  for 
brush-making,  although  the  great  majority  of  skins  used 
for  that  purpose  come  from  Russia. 


American  Badger. 


The  brush  manufacturers  shave  the  skins  on  the  leather 
side,  then  wash  them  in  alkali  to  remove  the  grease,  after 
which  the  hair  is  cut  off  close  to  the  pelt  and  sorted  into 
lengths ;  the  longest  hairs  being  used  for  graining  brushes, 
and  the  medium  length  for  shaving  brushes,  while  the 
tooth  brushes  are  made  of  the  shortest  hairs. 

Badgers  at  one  time  were  very  abundant  in  England, 
and  are  still  found  in  the  southern  part  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Ratel,  a  small,  clumsy  looking  creature,  about  the 
size  and  appearance  of  the  Badger,  is  often  called  the 
Honey  Badger.  There  are  two  distinct  species  of  this 
animal;  the  (Mellivora-indica),  found  in  India;  and  the 
(Mellivora-ratel),  which  has  its  habitat  in  Africa.  A 
black  Ratel,  that  ranges  the  Ituri  forests,  is  known  as  the 


The  Weasel  Family — Badgers.  195 

(Mellivora-cottoni).  Both  the  other  species  are  iron  grey 
on  the  upper  parts,  and  black  below,  and  have  thickly 
built,  stout  bodies;  their  legs  are  short  and  strong,  and 
armed,  especially  the  anterior  pair,  with  long  curved 
claws  with  which  they  dig  up  the  earth  in  search  of  the 
honey  combs  of  the  wild  bees;  their  tails  are  short  and 
their  ears  are  reduced  to  mere  rudiments.  They  have 
stout,  heavy,  conical  skulls.  The  two  species  may  be 
distinguished  from  one  another  by  a  distinct  white  line 
around  the  body  of  the  African  species,  at  the  junction 
of  the  grey  of  the  upper  side  with  the  black  of  the  lower, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  Indian  Katel;  the  teeth  of  the 
former  species  are  also  larger,  rounder  and  heavier  than 
those  of  the  latter. 

The  Sand  Badger  (Arctonyx-collaris)  is  a  yellowish 
animal,  larger  than  the  common  Badger  and  looking  very 
much  like  a  small  bear.  It  is  nocturnal  and  omnivorous 
in  habits  and  very  fierce.  It  is  found  in  Eastern  India, 
from  the  eastern  Himalayas  to  Burma.  A  small  Sand 
Badger  (Arctonyx-taxoides)  is  found  in  Assam,  Arakan 
and  also  in  China.  It  is  said  there  is  another  species  in 
Tibet,  with  a  tail  much  longer  in  proportion  to  the  body 
than  any  of  the  rest  of  the  group. 

There  are  four  species  of  Ferret  Bagders  (Helictes), 
which  are  found  in  Asia  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago ; 
and  the  Stink-dachs  of  the  Germans  (Mydaus-meliceps), 
which  is  said  to  be  the  connecting  link  between  the  true 
Badgers  and  the  Sand  Badger,  has  its  habitat  in  the  Mala- 
van  Peninsula. 


196  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


OTTER. 


All  Otters  are  so  like  one  another  that  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  the  exact  number  of  species,  but  it  is  certain 
that  there  are  at  least  ten  species  of  true  Otters;  one 
of  which  is  European  and  Oriental,  three  are  exclusively 
Oriental,  two  are  African  and  four  are  American.  The 
largest  member  of  the  group  is  the  Brazilian  Otter,  the 
smallest  representatives  are  the  feline  Otter  of  South  i 
America,  and  the  clawless  Otter  of  India;  the  best  known] 
of  the  species  is  the  European  or  Common  Otter  (Lutra- 
vulgaris),  and  the  most  valuable  is  the  North  American 
Otter  (Lutra-canadensis). 

Otters  Vary  much  in  size,  the  average  length  being] 
thirty  inches,  exclusive  of  the  tail  which  will  measure 
about  fifteen  inches.  The  general  color  of  the  fur  varies] 
from  a  fawn  to  a  liver  brown  when  the  top  or  hair  coat 
is  on  the  skins,  the  chin,  throat  and  under  part  of  the 
body  always  being  lighter  than  the  back.  The  under- 
fur  remaining,  when  the  top  hairs  have  been  plucked 
out,  varies  from  a  light  tan  in  some  skins,  to  a  golden 
brown  tint  in  others. 

Their  elongated  forms,  w^ith  but  slight  restriction  at 

the  neck,  enable  the  Otters  to  glide    through    the    water  

with  ease  and  speed,  and  the  dense  under  fur  affords  them^B 
protection  against  the  cold.    Their  teeth  are  so  constructed      ■ 
that  they  can  both  hold  such  slipperj^  prey  as  fishes,  and 
pierce  their  scales,  with  equal  facility.    They  have  broad,1 
flat  heads  with  sm^all  external  ears,  a  neck  so  thick  that 
it  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  trunk,  and  short  legs  with 
webbed  feet,  and  curved  blunt  claws.     They  are  expert^B 
and  graceful  swimmers  and  divers,  and  live  exclusively      ' 
on  fish  when  they  are  procurable.    They  frequent  all  kinds      • 
of  bodies  of  water,  sometimes  even  descending  to  the  sea.^f 
In  feeding  they  hold  the  fish  in  the  forepaws,  eating  down 
to  the  vent,  and  leaving  the  tail,  but  only  a  small  propor-      i 
tion  of  the  fish  they  capture  are  devoured,  as  the  Otter^Bj 
seems  to    delight  in   killing  for  killing's   sake.     Otters  ^ 
never  hibernate,  and  in  winter,  when  they  cannot  procure 
fish,  they  will  kill  poultry,  and  smaller  animals.    They  are 


;* 


The  Weasel  Family — Otters. 


197 


generally  found  in  pairs,  or  family  parties  of  five  or  six. 
They  are  somewhat  deficient  in  sight,  but  the  other  senses 
are  well  developed.  When  excited  they  give  a  yelping 
bark,  and  are  said  to  sound  a  sort  of  whistle  as  an  alarm 
note  to  their  fellows.  Otters  build  their  homes  in  the 
hollows  under  roots  of  trees  near  the  water's  edge,  or  in 
hilly  districts  in  the  clefts  between  the  rocks;  sometimes 
their  abodes  have  several  entrances,  one  of  which  opens 
under  the  water.  The  young  may  be  produced  at  any 
time,  although  winter  is  the  usual  season;  they  are  born 
blind,  and  a  litter  generally  contains  from  two  to  five 
cubs,  which  can  easily  be  tamed  if  caught  when  young. 
The  North  American  Otters  are  said  to  travel  so  fast  in 
going  across  country  from  river  to  river,  that  it  is  hard 
for  a  man  to  overtake  them;  on  the  ice  they  progress  by 
making  a  series  of  jumps,  and  then  sliding  on  their  bel- 
lies as  far  as  the  impetus  thus  acquired  will  carry  them. 
They  have  a  curious  habit  of  sliding  down  smooth  or 
steep  banks  of  snow  or  mud,  and  are  caught  in  steel  traps, 
set  under  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  one  of  these  slides, 
or  under  the  snow  at  the  top.  They  are  animals  of  high 
general  intelligence,  and  very  successful  in  evading  traps. 
When  domesticated  they  will  follow  like  a  dog. 


Otter 


I 

I 


198  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

The  fur  of  the  Otter  is  very  valuable,  as  it  can  be  used 
for  nearly  every  purpose,  either  in  its  natural  state,  or 
plucked  and  dyed.  The  skins  of  the  North  American 
Otter  are  worth  raw  from  fifteen  to  fifty  dollars  each, 
and  those  of  the  European  species  from  five  dollars  to 
fifteen  dollars.  The  finest  skins  come  from  Canada,  Nova 
Scotia  and  Labrador;  those  from  the  York  Fort  district 
are  large,  thick  and  dark;  the  Halifax  skins  are  also  very 
dark,  but  rather  coarse,  like  the  Norwegian  Otters.  The 
best  skins  come  from  the  East  Elaine  district,  and  are 
almost  black.  Otters  found  in  the  Southern  States  have  a 
thick  pelt,  and  are  of  low  standard.  Silvery  skins  are 
occasionally  met  with,  but  they  are  rare;  the  white  are 
more  common. 

There  are  three  species  of  South  American  Otters;  the; 
largest  of  these,  the  Brazil  Otter,  is  often  called  the  Mar- 
gin Tailed  Otter  because  it  has  a  distinct  ridge  running  - 
along  each  side  of  the  tail;  it  is  about  forty  inches  long,^B 
and  has  a  twenty-two  ijich  tail;  the  nose  of  this  species  ' 
is  covered  with  hair.  The  color  is  chocolate  on  the  back, 
but  lighter  on  the  under  parts,  and  it  also  has  light  spots] 
on  the  chin  and  throat,  and  some  dark  spots  on  the  under 
fur.  There  is  ^  hairy  nosed  Otter  found  in  the  Malay ; 
Peninsula.    The  Japanese  Otter  is  very  fine  in  quality. 


SEA  OTTER. 

Zoologists  while  classing  the  Sea  Otter  (Latax-lutris) 
as  belonging  to  a  genus  apart  from  that  containing  thej 
common  Otter,  consider  it  as  a  member  of  the  family 
Mustelidae,  and  we  have  therefore  placed  it  with  the  Wea- 
sels, although  in  many  of  its  habits,  in  its  general  ap- 
pearance, and  in  the  possesson  of  long  flipper-like  hind 
feet,  it  very  much  resembles  the  Eared  Seal. 

The  body  of  the  Sea  Otter  is  about  three  feet  long,] 
tapering  to  the  front  so  that  it  joins  the  small  rounded] 
head  without  any  marked  constriction  at  the  neck.  Thei 
skin  is  so  large  and  loose  for  the  size  of  the  body  that] 
when  it  is  removed  from  the  animal  it  can  readily  be 
stretched  to  one-third  more  than  its  apparent  length.^ 
The  pelage   consists  mainly  of  a  fine,  soft  fur,   amonj 


The  WExVsel  Family — Sea  Otters.  199 

which  are  a  small  proportion  of  long  stiffer  hairs.  The 
general  color  is  a  dark  liver  brown,  silvered  over  with 
the  greyish  tips  of  the  longer  hairs.  The  Sea  Otter  dif- 
fers from  the  common  Otter  not  only  in  external  charac- 
teristics, but  in  the  construction  and  the  number  of  its 
teeth — having  only  thirty-two  teeth,  while  the  common 
Otter  has  thirty-six,  and  Dr.  Cones  says:  '^If  the  teeth 
of  ordinary  carnivorous  quadrupeds  be  likened  to  fresh 
chipped,  sharp  and  angular  bits  of  rock,  those  of  the  Sea 
Otter  are  comparable  to  Avater-worn  pebbles."  Sea  Ot- 
ters are  very  playful  and  will  lie  upon  their  backs  in  the 
water  for  hours  tossing  pieces  of  sea  weed  into  the 
air  from  paw  to  paw,  or  sporting  with  their  young.  Their 
food  consists  almost  entirely  of  clams,  mussels,  sea  urchins 
and  other  shell  fish,  from  which  they  extract  the  contents 
by  taking  one  in  each  paw  and  striking  them  together 
to  break  the  shells.  The  young  may  be  born  at  any  sea- 
son, but  only  one  is  produced  at  a  birth.  The  mother 
sleeps  in  the  water  on  her  back,  with  her  young  clasped 
between  her  fore  paws.  Pups  have  frequently  been  cap- 
tured alive,  but  it  is  impossible  to  raise  them  as  w^hen 
taken  from  their  mother  they  invariably  die  of  self-im- 
posed starvation. 

Sea  Otters  inhabit  both  coasts  of  the  North  Pacific ; 
their  chief  haunts  on  the  Asiatic  side  being  found  in 
Kamschatka,  and  on  the  American  side  in  Alaska,  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  Sitka  Island  on  the  w^est  coast  of  Can- 
ada, Vancouver  Island  and  the  shores  of  the  continent 
as  far  south  as  Oregon.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Elliot 
that  when  the  Russian  traders  first  opened  up  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  they  found  the  natives  wearing  cloaks  made 
of  the  fur  of  the  Sea  Otter ;  and  that  when  the  Pribilov 
Islands  were  discovered  in  the  Bering  Sea  upwards  of 
five  thousand  Sea  Otters  were  killed  the  first  season, 
but  in  less  than  six  years  these  animals  had  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  these  islands ;  and  now  they  are 
becoming  so  rare  everyw^here,  that  nothing  but  govern- 
ment protection  can  save  the  species  from  total  extinc- 
tion. Mr.  Elliott  says:  ''Over  two-thirds  of  the  Sea 
Otters  now  taken  in  Alaska  are  secured  in  two  small 
areas  of  water  around  the  Islands  of  Saanach  and  Cher- 
nobours  and  most  of  those  taken  on  the  Coast  of  Wash- 


200 


Carnivora  Fissipedia. 


ington  and  Oregon  are  secured  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Grey's  Harbor,  which  shows  that  these  animals  seem  to 
have  a  preference  for  certain  localities  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  territory."- 

Because  of  their  quick  hearing  and  acute  smell  Sea 
Otters  are  hard  to  capture  by  shooting  or  clubbing,  unless 
there  is  a  heavy  gale  from  the  north  to  drown  the  sounds 
made  by  the  approaching  hunters.  Some  of  the  natives 
spread  nets  over  the  kelp-beds  where  the  Otters  are  in 
the  habit  of  sleeping,  when  the  animals  becoming  par- 
alyzed with  fear  as  they  find  themselves  entangled  in  the 
meshes,  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the  hunters. 

The  Sea  Otter  furnishes  one  of  the  most  valuable  of: 
furs  as  a  single  skin  will  often  sell  for  from  one  thousand 
five  hundred  dollars  to  two  thousand  dollars,  and  the 
average  price  of  a  season 's  catch  is  about  five  hundred  dol- 
lars per  skin. 


Sea  Otter. 


The  Weasel  Family — Wolverine.  201 


THE  WOLVERINE. 

The  Wolverine  (Gulo-luscus),  is  known  all  over  Eu- 
rope as  the  Vielfrass.  By  the  French  Canadians  it  is 
called  Carcajou;  and  by  the  British  residents  of  North 
America  it  is  named  Quick-hatch, 

Linnaeus  placed  the  Wolverines  among  the  Bears, 
whom  they  really  only  resemble  in  their  plantigrade  move- 
ments; approximating  much  nearer  to  the  Weasels,  in 
their  teeth,  as  well  as  in- their  habits.  Scientists  are  now 
agreed  that  the  W^olverine  should  be  placed  with  the 
Weasel,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  belongs  to  another 
genus  and  is  different  in  appearance  and  dimensions  from 
all  the  other  members  of  the  Weasel  family.  It  has  the 
same  number  of  teeth  as  the  Weasel,  but  they  are  un- 
usually powerful  and  strong,  distinctly  resembling  those 
of  the  Hyaenas. 

The  Wolverine  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  regions 
of  both  hemispheres. 4  It  is  heavily  and  clumsily  built; 
has  thick,  stout  limbs;  and  like  the  Badger  walks  w^th 
the  back  arched,  and  both  head  and  tail  carried  low\  The 
head  is  broad  and  rounded,  with  small,  widely  separated 
eyes,  and  small  rounded  ears.  The  length  of  the  body  is 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  inches,  and  the  tail,  which 
has  a  plait  or  fold  in  place  of  a  sac,  measures  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches.  The  body  is  covered  with  a  thick, 
woolly  under  fur,  and  a  top  coat  of  long,  coarse  hair.  The 
general  color  is  blackish  brown,  with  distinct  bands  of 
chestnut  brown  or  some  lighter  tint,  commencing  behind 
the  shoulders  and  running  down  the  flanks  to  meet  at 
the  root  of  the  tail,  forming  a  perfect  disc  on  the  back. 
The  fur  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  head  is  of  a  light, 
grey  color.  „  In  the  Western  Hemisphere  this  animal 
ranges  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  coast,  and  as  far  south 
as  Lake  Erie  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent,  and 
Salt  Lake  on  the  western  side;  in  the  mountains  it  is  seen 
as  far  south  as  Arizona  and  New^  Mexico.  -  It  is  a  forest 
haunting  species,  nocturnal  in  habit  and  can  travel  rapidly. 
It  is  so  voracious  that  it  has  been  termed  the  Glutton. 
It  hunts  during  the  night;  does  not  become  torpid  dur- 
ing the  winter;  and  is  a  solitary  animal,  living  in  sub- 


202  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

terranean  holes,  where  its  young  are  born  in  June  or 
July.  It  is  sanguinary  and  ferocious  and  masters  the 
largest  animals  by  leaping  upon  them  from  trees,  and  in 
pursuit  of  its  prey  it  has  been  known  to  swim  rivers. 

The  Wolverine  is  a  natural  born  thief,  often  stealing 
things  for  which  it  has    no    possible   use.     In    search    of 
food  it  will  rob  the  traps  set  for  other  animals,  and  it 
will  devour  any  beast  or  bird  it  can  catch.     It  is  won 
derfully  sagacious,  and  is  very  difficult  to  trap  because 
of  its  ability  to  detect  the  preparations  made  for  its  cap 
ture.     Lydeeker  says:  "When  one  of  them  has  discov 
ered  a  line  of  Marten  traps  the  trapper  may  as  well  re 
linquish  his  trade  until  he  has  destroyed     the    marauder 
Every  trap  along  the  line  will  be  pulled  to  pieces  and  the 
bait  or  captured  marten  removed,  and  after  the  hunger 
of  the  Glutton  is  satisfied  the  remainder  of  the  booty  wil 
be  buried.     Another  curious  propensity  of  the  Glutto 
is  its  habit  of  stealing  and  hiding  articles  which  can  b 
of  no  posible  use  to  it ;  and  an  instance  is  recorded  wher 
these   animals  removed   and   concealed  the  "yvhole   para- 
phernalia of  a  hunter's  lodge,  including  such  articles  as 
guns,  axes,  knives,  cooking  vessels  and  blankets."  Strang 
as  it  may  seem,  in  spite  of  its  cunning,  this  animal  is  itsel 
caught  in  large   traps   made   to   look  like   caches,   int 
which  it  will  break  to  get  the  bait  which  is  concealed  in 
stead  of  being  exposed  in  the  usual  way. 

The  darkest  specimens  of  this  animal  are  found  in  th 
glacial  regions  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere.  The  Commo; 
Glutton  or  l^ossomak  (Urus-gulo)  of  Kussia  has  a  fine 
deep  maronne  color,  with  a  darker  disc. 

The  fur  of  the  Wolverine  is  seldom  used  for  anythin 
except  sleigh  robes  and  rugs,  and  the  manufactur 
of  tails  that  make  a  good  imitation  of  the  stone  marte 
tails. 

Hot  climates  produce  some  species,  which  only  differ 
from  the  Gluttons  in  having  one  false  molar  less  in  eac 
jaw,  and  a  long  tail.  Such  are  the  animals  called  Ferre 
by  the  inhabitants  of  South  America,  which  while  the 
have  the  teeth  of  our  Ferrets  and  Polecats  and  simila 
habits,  are  distinguished  from  them  by  their  plantigrad 
movement. 


I 

ir 

i 


203 


RACCOONS. 


The  Kaccoons  or  Ratons  (Procyonidae),  are  a  very  small 
family  of  Carnivores  whose  habitat  is  principally  con- 
fined to  the  central  and  southern  portions  of  the  North 
American  continent.  The  skull  has  the  same  essential 
characteristics  as  that  of  the  bear,  and  while  in  some  other 
respects  their  external  appearance  is  like  that  of  a  bear 
in  miniature,  they  differ  in  other  ways  very  materially 
from  that  animal,  having  well  developed  tails  marked 
by  alternate  dark  and  light  rings.  They  have  the  same 
plantigrade  feet,  but  they  rest  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot 
on  the  ground  only  when  they  stand  still;  when  they 
walk  they  raise  the  heel.  The  dark  brown  fur  on  the 
body  of  the  Raccoons  is  thick  and  rather  coarse  and 
has  tips  of  greyish  hair;  the  muzzle  is  white,  and 
they  have  a  brown  streak  across  the  eyes.  The  length  of 
the  body  is  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  inches  long.  A 
Raccoon  will  weigh  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  pounds 
when  in  the  best  of  condition.  Raccoons  have  three  back 
tuberculous  molars,  the  superior  of  which  are  nearly 
square;  and  three  pointed  false  molars  in  front  forming 
a  continuous  series  to  the  canine,  which  are  straight  and 
compressed.  The  total  number  of  teeth  in  these  animals 
is  forty. 


Raccoon. 


Raccoons  (Procyon-lotor)  are  extremely  common 
about  the  borders  of  the  Adirondacks.  They  are  good 
climbers,  and  they  delight  to  sport  on  the  margins  of 


204  Carnivora  Fissipedia. 

pools  and  streams,  where  they  capture  fish  lurking  be- 
neath the  stones  and  the  fresh  water  mussels  buried  in 
the  mud  and  sand,  but  although  they  are  good  swimmers 
they  are  unable  to  dive  in  pursuit 'of  their  prey.  Trees 
are  their  refuge  when  pursued  by  foes,  and  form  their 
resting,  and  breeding  places.  Their  nests  are  made  in 
hollows  high  up  from  the  ground ;  but  as  it  does  not  hunt 
its  prey  among  the  tree  tops  the  Raccoon  cannot  be 
considered  as  an  arboreal  animal,  nor  does  it  gather 
nuts  or  fruit  from  the  branches,  or  feed  upon  young 
shoots  or  twigs,  preferring  a  diet  of  eggs,  birds,  fish  and 
smaller  animals  like  mice.  From  a  singular  habit  it  has 
of  eating  nothing  without  first  dipping  it  in  water,  the 
Germans  call  it  the  Wash  Bear. 

Raccoons  are  the  most  strictly  nocturnal  of  all  North 
American  mammals.  They  commonly  live  and  travel  in 
small  companies  and  do  not  return  to  the  same  nest  every 
morning,  but  often  make  excursions  in  various  direc- 
tions that  last  several  days,  taking  refuge  at  the 
approach  of  dawn  in  any  convenient  arboreal  shelter. 
In  the  Adirondacks  the  young,  numbering  from  four  to 
six  to  a  litter,  are  produced  early  in  the  spring,  and 
remain  with  the  parents  about  a  year.  Raccoons  hiber- 
nate during  the  severest  part  of  the  winter,  retiring  to 
their  nests  high  up  in  the  trees  early  in  the  fall,  and  not 
appearing  again  until  February  or  March  of  the  following 
year. 

Raccoons  are  easily  caught  in  steel  traps,  if  these  are 
set  under  the  water  at  the  edge  of  swamps  or  streams; 
but  the  sporting  method  of  hunting  them  is  at  night  with 
trained  dogs,  when  after  a  short  run  they  invariably  take 
to  a  tree  where  they  are  shot  by  the  hunter. 

Because  of  the  many  purposes  for  which  it  can  be 
used  the  fur  of  the  Raccoon  ,though  not  expensive,  is 
very  valuable.  Either  in  its  natural  state,  or  dyed,  it  is 
manufactured  into  sleigh  robes  and  coats;  as  well  as  such 
small  furs  as  muffs,  neck  pieces,  caps  and  gloves. 

The  Coatis  have  a  singularly  elongated  and  flexible 
snout,  and  the  teeth,  tail,  nocturnal  habits,  and  slow 
dragging  gait  of  the  Raccoon.  Notwithstanding  their  long 
nails,  which  are  used  for  digging,  and  their  semi-palmate 


The  Raccoon  Family.  205 

feet,  they  climb  trees.  They  inhabit  the  warm  climates 
of  America,  and  their  diet  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Marten  in  Europe. 

The  Cacomistle  or  Bassaxisk  is  a  small  member  of  the 
Raccoon  family,  inhabiting^  Mexico  and  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Its  body  is  sixteen  inches  long,  and  its  tail  will 
measure  about  fifteen  inches.  It  is  rather  slender,  has  a 
sharp,  fox-like  face,  and  large  bright  eyes  surrounded  by 
light  patches  w^hich,  with  the  erect  ears,  give  an  alert  and 
pleasing  expression  to  the  countenance.  Its  fur  is  long, 
soft  and  light  brown  above,  darkest  along  the  back,  and 
the  long  bushy  tail  has  six  or  eight  broad,  white  rings; 
the  fur  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body  is  white. 

This  animal  has  been  called  the  Cacomistle  by  the 
Mexicans,  and  the  Bush  Cat,  Raccoon  Fox  and  Ring  Tail 
by  skin  dealers  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  but  the 
scientists  have  now  agreed  upon  the  name  Bassarisk  for 
the  various  species  of  the  Basaris-astuta. 

Plucked  and  dyed  the  fur  of  the  Bassarisk  resembles 
that  of  the  Marten,  and  has  become  very  popular  as  a 
substitute  for  it  under  various  names,  the  French  furriers 
calling  it  Bassarius,  and  others  listing  it  as  the  Ringtail 
and  Bush  Cat. 

The  Panda  (Aelurus-fulgens),  or  Red  Cat-bear,  which 
seems  to  be  the  connecting  link  between  the  Raccoons 
and  Bears,  approximates  to  the  Raccoon  by  its  canines 
and  what  is  known  of  its  other  teeth,  with  the  exception 
that  it  has  only  one  false  molar,  making  the  total  number  of 
its  teeth  thirty-eight.  This  animal  is  rather  larger  than  a 
cat,  has  a  sharp  muzzle  and  small  round  ears,  the  inner  sur- 
face of  which  are  white;  a  moderately  long  tail  covered 
with  long  hair ;  and  plantigrade  feet,  with  semi-retractile 
claws  in  the  five  white  toes.  The  face  is  white,  with  the 
exception  of  a  vertical  stripe  of  red  from  just  above  the 
eye  to  the  angle  of  the  mouth  and  a  red  stripe  running 
down  the  center  of  the  nose ;  there  are  several  pale  rings 
on  the  tail,  the  tip  of  which  is  black.  Its  l)ack  fur  is  of  a 
remarkable  rich,  reddish  brown  color,  darker  below  than 
on  the  upper  parts.  Its  thick,  fine,  woolly  under 
fur  is  concealed  by  long,  soft,  glistening  and  richly 
colored  hairs,  making  it,  according  to  some  authorities, 


206  Cabnivora  Pinnipedia. 

the  most  beautiful  animal  in  the  world.  It  dwells  chiefly 
among  the  rocks  on  the  high  mountain  slopes,  7,000  to 
12,000  feet  above  sea  level,  but  it  also  climbs  trees,  and 
preys  on  birds,  small  animals  and  insects.  It  also  eats 
fruits,  roots  and  other  parts  of  plants,  and  will  feast  on 
milk  and  butter.  It  is  a  harmless,  defenseless  animal, 
equipped  for  climbing,  rather  than  fighting.  It  makes 
its  nest  in  hollow  trees,  and  brings  forth  its  young,  gen- 
erally two  in  number,  in  the  spring.  They  are  helpless 
for  a  long  time,  one  litter  remaining  with  the  parents 
until  the  next  comes.    The  Panda  is  easily  tamed. 

The  Kinkajau  (Viverra-caudivolvula),  an  animal  with 
thirty-six  teeth,  a  short  muzzle,  slender  tongue,  and  a  pre- 
hensile tail,  found  at  elevations  of  from  4,000  to  5,000 
feet,  from  Central  Mexico  to  the  Amazon  River  in  Brazil ; 
and  the  Potto  found  in  parts  of  Africa,  are  also  related 
to  the  Raccoons. 


Pinnipeds.  207 


PINNIPEDS. 

The  Seals  and  Walruses  are  the  only  Pinniped  or  fin- 
footed  Carnivores.  Their  entire  organization  is  adapted 
for  an  aquatic  life.  Both  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  are 
modified  into  paddle  or  flipper-like  organs;  the  upper 
parts  of  which  are  enclosed  with  the  same  integument  as 
the  body,  while  the  elongated  feet  or  flippers  are  cov- 
ered with  a  skin  resembling  India  rubber.  The  feet  have 
great  power  of  expansion  and  the  five  toes  are  completely 
connected  with  web.  The  first  and  fifth  toes  on  the  hind 
feet  are  stouter  and  longer  than  the  three  middle  toes; 
and  the  skin  covering  on  all  the  feet  terminates  in  large 
lobes  projecting  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  bones,  and 
is  thick  and  ribbed  on  the  exposed  parts,  to  prevent  it 
from  being  injured  by  abrasions,  when  brought  into  vio- 
lent contact  with  the  rocks  or  ice.  These  animals  all  have 
very  short  tails,  and  are  further  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  rudimentary  collar  bones  and  the  presence  of 
large  protruding  eyes  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
secure  accuracy  of  vision  under  the  water. 

Seals  are  the  only  pinnipeds  that  come  within  the  scope 
of  this  work,  as  the  Walruses  can  hardly  be  considered 
as  fur-bearing  animals.  Seals  have  either  thirty-four  or 
thirty-six  teeth,  but  none  of  them  show  the  flesh  tooth, 
always  found  in  the  jaw  of  the  fissiped  or  true  Carni- 
vores. The  number  of  incisors  is  invariably  reduced 
below  the  typical  pairs  in  each  jaw,  some  Seals  having 
only  two  pairs  in  each  jaw,  and  none  having  more  than 
three  pairs  in  the  upper,  and  two  pairs  in  the  lower  jaw. 
They  all  have  five  cheek  teeth  in  each  jaw,  the  first  four  of 
Avhich  belong  to  the  pre-molar  system.  A  marked  pecul- 
iarity of  the  teeth,  is  a  groove  in  the  upper  incisors,  into 
which  the  sharp  lower  incisors  fit  so  as  to  form  a  vice 
from  which  it  is  impossible  for  a  fish  to  escape.  The  milk 
teeth  are  of  no  real  use  to  these  animals,  and  are  fre- 
quently shed  by  them  before  birth. 


208  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

At  the  present  time,  the  aggregate  number  of  Fur 
Seals  killed  in  a  year,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  is  less 
than  30,000;  and  the  yearly  catch  of  Hair  Seals  is  some- 
thing less  than  250,000.  The  following  estimates  of  the 
number  of  Seals,  of  all  kinds,  taken  in  1886,  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  location  of  the  different  sealing  grounds  and 
the  relative  commercial  importance  of  the  different  spe- 
cies thirty-five  years  ago. 

HAIR  SEALS. 

Newfoundland,  including  Labrador  and  the  Gulf 

of  St.  Lawrence 400,000 

Canadian  Net  Fishery,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. . .  75,000 

Jan-Mayen  and  adjacent  seas  110,000 

Western  Greenland    50,000 

Nova  Zembla,  White  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean 75,000 

Caspian  Sea  140,000 

North  and  South  Pacific  Oceans 5,000 

875,000 
FUR  SEALS. 

Pribilov  Islands   (Alaska)    100,000 

Commander  Island  (Copper  Island)    30,000 

Straits  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  and  vicinity  .........  15,000 

Patagonia,    including    South    Shetland    Islands, 

and  Straits  of  Magellan  15,000 

Lobos  Islands,  mouth  of  Rio  de  la  Plata 12,000 

Falkland  Islands    5,000 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  including  southwest  coast 

of  Africa,  and  islands  in  South  Indian  Ocean  10,000 

Islands  belonging  to  Japan 2,500 

185,000 
All  Seals  are  maritime  and  extra-tropical  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  unimportant  species  found  in  the  Medi- 
terranean and  other  inland  seas,  and  in  West  Indian 
waters.  Seals  are  divided  into  two  distinct  families — the 
Phocidae  or  True  Seals,  and  the  Otariidae  or  Eared  Seals 
— differing  from  one  another  in  character  and  habits,  as 
well  as  in  external  appearance.  Those  species  having  a 
dense  coat  of  soft,  short  fur  under  the  stiff  long  hair 
which  forms  the  outer  covering  of  all  the  members  of 


Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Dogs.  209 

both  families,  are  called  Fiir  Seals ;  and  those  which  are 
entirely  devoid  of  this  under  fur,  or  possess  it  only  in  a 
limited  degree,  are  known  as  Hair  Seals.  Not  all  the 
Otariidae  are  Fur  Seals;  but  all  the  Phocidae  are  Hair 
Seals,  although  the  cubs  of  some  of  the  species  of  the 
latter  family  are  called  Wool  Seals,  until  they  lose  the 
soft  woolly  white  coat  with  which  they  are  born.  The 
time  of  shedding  this  coat  varies  in  different  species.  The 
cubs  of  the  Common  Seal  take  to  the  water  and  change 
their  coat  within  a  few  hours  of  their  birth,  while  the 
young  Greenland  Seals  do  not  go  into  the  water  or  shed 
their  fur,  until  they  are  from  four  to  six  weeks  old.  Seals 
seldom  produce  more  than  one  cub  in  a  year,  and  never 
more  than  a  pair.  They  subsist  entirely  upon  fish,  crus- 
taceans and  mollusks,  and  can  sleep  as  w^ell  floating  on 
their  backs  on  the  sea,  as  upon  the  ice  floes  or  the  land. 


TRUE  SEALS  (Phocidae) 

True  Seals  occur  along  the  shores  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  portions  of  the  globe,  but  the  greater  number  are 
found  on  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  members  of 
this  family  have  no  trace  of  external  ears,  and  the  front 
limbs  are  always  smaller  than  the  hinder.  The  under 
surfaces  of  both  front  and  hind  feet  are  well  covered  with 
hair,  and  in  most  cases  all  the  digits  are  furnished  with 
well-developd  claws.  The  hind  feet  are  incapable  of  the 
great  power  of  expansion,  and  want  the  long  flaps  of  skin 
at  the  extremities  characterizing  those  of  the  Eared  Seals. 
There  is  but  little  difference  in  size  between  the  males  and 
females  of  this  family,  and  none  of  the  various  species  are 
Fur  Seals.  True  Seals  are  with  few  exceptions  gregar- 
ious, gentle  and  submissive,  offering  no  resistance  when 
attacked  by  man.  They  have  strongly  developed  social 
instincts,  and  display  an  extraordinary  affection  for  their 
young,  who  generally  remain  on  the  land  for  the  first  few 
weeks  of  their  existence,  and  who,  strange  as  it  may  seem, 
take  reluctantly  to  the  water,  and  have  to  be  taught  the 
art  of  swimming  by  their  parents;  but  the  cubs  of  the 
Common  Seal  are  a  marked  exception  to  this  rule.  True 
Seals  are  more  specialized  for  an  aquatic  life  than  the 


210  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

Eared  Seals.  They  can  remain  under  the  water  twenty 
minutes,  or  more,  without  coming  up  to  the  surface  to 
breathe. 

Owing  to  their  hind  limbs  being  turned  permanently 
back,  so  as  conjointly  to  form  a  sort  of  rudder,  True  Seals 
move  very  slowly  when  out  of  water.  They  progress  with 
a  kind  of  wriggling  motion,  made  by  pressing  the  palmer 
surface  of  the  forepaws  on  the  ground  either  alternately 
or  simultaneously,  and  sliding  the  body  forward  in  a  suc- 
cession of  short  jerks. 

Two  of  the  species,  the  Greenland  Seal  and  the  Hooded 
Seal,  are  migratory.  In  May,  attended  by  their  young, 
they  commence  their  northerly  movements  to  the  Green- 
land seas,  where  they  spend  two  or  three  months.  In 
September  they  begin  a  southerly  migration  to  escape 
the  intense  cold  of  the  northern  winter;  one  division 
passing  through  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle  to  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  other  along  the  east  coast  of  New- 
foundland. By  the  close  of  the  year  they  reach  the  Great 
Banks,  which  is  their  southern  headquarters.  Early  in 
February  they  again  start  northward  to  meet  the  ice 
fields  upon  which  their  young  are  brought  forth  in  March. 

The  appearance  of  the  herds  as  they  pass  a  given  point 
on  their  journey  from  the  north  is  most  imposing.  Mr. 
J.  C.  Stevenson  says : ' '  The  southern  migration  commences 
soon  after  the  frost  sets  in.  A  fisherman  posted  as  a  sen- 
tinel on  some  headland  commanding  an  extensive  sea 
view,  will  first  notice  small  detachments,  of  from  half  a 
dozen  to  a  score  of  Seals  each,  passing  at  rather  long  in- 
tervals; the  detachments  gradually  increase  in  frequency 
and  numbers,  until  they  are  seen  in  companies  of  a  hun- 
dred or  more,  closely  following  one  another.  After  two 
or  three  days  the  main  body,  consisting  of  an  uncount- 
able crowd,  will  come  into  sight,  and  then  for  the  greater 
part  of  two  days  the  sea  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  will 
seem  to  be  literally  paved  with  the  heads  of  the  Seals. 

True  Seals  seldom  stay  on  the  land  for  long  periods, 
and  even  when  basking  in  the  sunshine  on  the  beaches 
and  ice  floes,  they  generally  keep  so  near  the  water's 
edge  that  it  is  difficult  for  the  hunters  to  cut  off  their 
retreat.  i 


Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Dogs.  211 

With  the  exception  of  the  Elephant  Seal,  none  of  the 
species  of  this  family  resort  to  any  particular  breeding 
ground,  but  produce  their  young  on  the  ice  floes  and 
beaches.  There  are  sixteen  or  seventeen  varieties  of  True 
Seals,  but  only  such  as  are  of  special  interest,  structurally 
or  commerciallj^,  are  considered  in  this  work. 

The  Elephant  Seal,  whose  habitat  is  in  the  seas  of  the 
antipodes,  is  the  largest  of  all  pinnipeds,  measuring  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in  length.  Like  the  next  largest 
representative  of  the  Phocidae — the  Sea  Leopard  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean — this  species  is  well  nigh  extinct,  and 
the  few  skins  now  taken  are  used  for  leather  purposes 
only.  Unlike  most  True  Seals  the  Elephant  Seal  is  polyg- 
amous. 


The  Grey  Seal,  or  square  flipper,  by  some  authorities 
also  claimed  to  be  polygamous,  is  one  of  the  largest  True 
Seals  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  sometimes  attaining 
a  length  of  twelve  feet,  although  the  average  '^Grey 
Back,"  which  will  weigh  about  400  pounds,  is  eight  feet 
long.  The  cubs  or  White-coats  of  this  species  are  larger 
than  the  adult  Ringed  Seals,  measuring  from  four  to  five 
feet,  which  is  nearly  the  size  of  the  full-grown  Greenland 
and  Common  Seals.  The  Grey  Seal  is  found  in  compara- 
tively narrow  limits  in  the  North  Atlantic,  being  com- 
moner on  the  shores  of  Europe  than  on  the  American 
side,  where  it  ranges  from  Sable  Island  to  the  Straits  of 
Labrador  and  Disco  Island,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  Hudson's  Bay.  It  also  occurs 
in  Iceland,  and  is  one  of  the  two  species  occasionally  met 
with  off  the  British  Islands;  but  its  chief  habitat  is  the 
northern  coast  of  Norway,  where  it  usually  breeds  at  the 
end  of  September,  producing  its  young  on  the  ice.  The 
Grey  Seal  is  the  sole  representative  of  its  genus,  and  can 
be  distinguished  from  all  other  species  of  True  Seals  by 
the  form  of  its  skull,  and  the  simple  character  of  its  teeth. 
It  is  less  docile  and  intelligent  than  the  Common  Seal, 
and  cannot  be  tamed  in  the  same  manner. 

Grey  Seals  have  chosen  localities  where  they  come 
ashore,  generally  selecting  places  on  the  leeside  of  an 
island.  Before  landing  they  will  swim  back  and  forth 
several  times,  with  head  erect  and  eye,  ear  and  nose  on  the 


212  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

alert,  to  detect  the  slightest  sign  of  danger.  Then  care- 
fully choosing  a  place  where  a  shelf  of  rock,  raised  but 
little  above  the  sea,  descends  vertically  several  feet  be- 
neath, so  it  will  be  possible  for  them  to  plunge  head  first 
into  the  water,  and  disappear  upon  the  first  alarming 
«ound,  they  will  emerge.  Upon  gaining  the  surface  of 
the  rock,  they  at  once  turn  completely  around,  so  they 
can  lie  with  the  head  seaward,  ready  to  dive  on  the  in- 
stant, should  occasion  require. 

The  coat  of  the  Grey  Seal  is  yellowish  in  color,  becom- 
ing lighter  on  the  under  parts,  and  is  marked  with  dusky, 
ill-defined  spots.  The  skins  are  seldom  met  wdth  in  com- 
merce, and  the  few  that  are  marketed  are  bought  exclu- 
sively by  tanners. 


The  Ringed  Seal,  or  floe-rat,  is  the  smallest  representa- 
tive of  the  Phocidae,  averaging  about  three  feet  in  length. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Fetid  Seal,  because  of  the  odor 
it  exudes.  While  they  are  found  to  some  extent  in  the 
North  Atlantic  and  the  North  Pacific  Oceans,  the  true 
home  of  the  Ringed  Seals  is  in  the  icy  Arctic  Seas,  where 
their  favorite  resorts  are  sheltered  bays  and  fjords,  in 
which  they  will  remain  as  long  as  they  are  filled  with  solid 
ice,  but  when  the  ice  breaks  up,  they  drift  out  to  sea  upon 
the  floes,  and  there  the  young  are  born  in  April  and  May. 

This  species  is  not  migratory,  but  very  abundant,  and 
of  special  local  value  to  the  Eskimos,  who  take  large 
quantities  of  them  through  holes  which  they  cut  in  the 
ice.  The  skins  that  are  exported  are  used  exclusively  for 
leather. 

The  Ringed  Seal  can  be  distinguished  from  all  others, 
by  the  peculiar  markings  to  which  it  owes  its  name,  -its 
smaller  body,  slenderer  form,  longer  limbs  and  tail,  nar- 
rower head  and  more  pointed  nose.  It  is  one  of  the  spe- 
cies of  True  Seals  that  make  circular  blow  holes  in  the 
ice,  through  which  they  ascend  and  descend  at  pleasure. 
The  covering  of  the  body  is  a  dense,  coarse  hair,  almost 
like  w^ool,  and  the  color  of  the  adult,  is  blackish  grey 
above,  with  oval  rings,  and  whitish  on  the  under  parts. 

The  Baikal  Seal,  and  the  Ca,spian  Seal,  which  are  re- 
spectively confined  to  the  seas  which  bear  their  names, 
although  they  are  much  larger,  are  closely  allied  to  the 


Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Dogs.  213 

Ringed  Seal.  They  are  of  special  interest  only  because 
of  the  nature  of  their  habitat ;  the  Baikal  Seal  inhabiting 
a  fresh  water  lake,  and  the  Caspian  Seal  living  in  a  sea 
but  slightly  salt. 


The  Common  Seal  belongs  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
preceding  species,  and  the  Greenland  Seal.  While  its 
teeth  are  smaller  and  sharper  than  those  of  the  Grey  Seal 
they  are  more  massive  than  those  of  the  other  representa- 
tives of  its  own  genus,  from  whom  it  is  further  distin- 
guished by  its  stouter  build,  longer  head,  broader  nose  and 
shorter  limbs.  In  color  the  adult  Common  Seal  is  yellow- 
ish grey,  with  irregular  dark  brown  'or  blackish  spots; 
but  the  cubs,  which  are  brought  forth  in  May  or  June,  are 
born  with  a  woolly,  yellowish  white  coat,  which  they  shed 
immediately  after  birth.  The  full-grown  males  vary  from 
five  to  six  feet  in  length. 

These  Seals  do  not  make  seasonable  migrations,  but  are 
found  in  the  same  haunts  throughout  the  year.  They  are 
gregarious,  but  do  not  gather  together  in  such  large  num- 
bers as  some  of  the  other  species,  and  prefer  sheltered 
sounds  and  bays,  with  shallow  water  and  an  abundant 
supply  of  fish  to  more  exposed  positions.  Common  Seals 
leave  the  water  at  every  tide,  to  rest  on  the  rocks  or 
beach  almost  invariably  selecting  portions  that  are  sep- 
arated from  the  mainland.  They  are  more  intelligent 
than  their  cogeners,  and  can  be  readily  tamed ;  instances 
being  recorded  where  they  have  followed  their  owners 
about  like  dogs,  and  also  where  they  have  been  taught  to 
perform  tricks.  Like  other  True  Seals  these  animals 
are  readily  attracted  by  music,  and  will  follow  a  vessel, 
from  which  such  sounds  proceed,  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance. 

The  Common  Seal  has  a  wide  range ;  occurring  princi- 
pally, however,  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific 
Oceans,  extending  on  the  shores  of  both  oceans  to 
the  Arctic  regions.  In  the  Atlantic  it  is  sometimes  found 
as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean  on  the  European  side, 
and  New  Jersey  on  the  American  side.  In  the  Pacific  its 
southern  limit  seems  to  be  marked  by  Kamschatka  on  the 
eastern,  and  Southern  California  on  the  western  side. 
This  species  does  not  confine  itself  to  the  coast,  but  often 


214  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

ascends  the  tidal  rivers  to  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  mouth,  and  has  been  known  to  pass  up  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  into  the  Great  Lakes.  Apart  from  the  Grey 
Seal,  this  is  the  only  species  ordinarily  met  with  on  the 
coasts  of  the  British  Islands. 

The  skins  used  in  commerce  come  principally  from 
northern  w^aters,  and  are  manufactured  into  leather,  or 
used  with  the  hair  on  for  making  saddle  housings,  trunk 
covers,  tobacco  pouches,  toy  knapsacks  and  a  variety  of 
similar  articles. 


The  Greenland  Seal,  which  is  essentially  a  northern 
species,  is  the  most  important  member  commercially  of 
the  True  Seal  family.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  the 
Common  Seal,  and  at  some  periods  of  its  existence  sim- 
ilarly mar]ied;  but  when  full  grown  it  can  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  characteristic  coloration  of  the  back, 
because  of  which  it  is  often  called  the  Harp  or  Saddle- 
Back  Seal.  The  general  color  of  the  adult  Greenland  Seal 
is  a  yellowish  white  w^ith  black  markings  on  the  back, 
fore  part  of  the  head  and  limbs — the  markings  being  less 
distinct  on  the  females  than  on  the  males.  In  neither  sex, 
however,  is  the  full  coloration  obtained  before  the  fifth 
year,  and  so  different  is  the  appearance  of  the  animal  at 
various  stages  of  its  growth  that  it  is  called  by  different 
names  at  different  ages.  For  the  first  few  months  it  is 
classed  as  a  ''White-coat";  when  the  woolly  hair  begins 
to  fall  off,  and  dark  spots  to  appear  in  the  new  coat,  it 
is  designated  a  "Small  Spot."  At  two  years  old  it  is 
known  as  a  "Middling  Spot"  or  "Bedlamite";  and  later 
it  is  called  a  "Spot,"  until  such  time  as  it  develops  by 
reason  of  full  coloration  into  a  "Harp." 

The  migratory  habits  of  the  Greenland  Seal  have  al- 
ready been  referred  to ;  and  a  study  of  its  itinerary  shows, 
that  while  it  is  found  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  far  north, 
and  is  at  rare  intervals  a  visitor  to  the  British  islands, 
and  parts  of  the  West  Coast  of  Northern  Europe,  its 
habitat  is  on  the  west  side  of  the  North  Atlantic  from 
Newfoundland  to  the  Arctic  regions. 

During  their  migrations  these  animals  keep  close  to  the 
coast,  and  frequently  enter  the  bays  and  estuaries,  but 
when  settled  at  their  breeding  resorts,  they  prefer   ex- 


Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Dogs.  215 

posed  ice  floes  in  the  open  sea.  They  are  very  gregarious, 
always  assembling  in  immense  herds.  Some  idea  of  their 
abundance  a  few  decades  ago  is  given  in  the  estimates 
printed  on  another  page  of  the  catch  in  1886;  in  that 
year  a  single  steamer  secured  22,000  skins,  valued  at  $2.50 
each,  in  nine  days. 

At  the  present  time,  the  total  number  of  Greenland 
Seals  taken  annually  in  the  Jan-Mayen  seas,  is  probably 
30,000,  and  the  yearly  catch  in  the  Newfoundland  dis- 
trict is  about  three  times  that  number.  Unlike  the  Ringed 
Seals,  and  the  Bearded  Seals,  the  Greenland  Seals  do  not 
make  breathing  or  blow  holes  in  the  ice.  This  is  prob- 
ably the  reason  why  they  frequent  the  floes  in  preference 
to  the  stretches  of  unbroken  ice.  Off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundland the  young  are  born  early  in  March,  and  in  the 
Jan-Mayen  district  a  few  weeks  later. 

The  skins  of  "Harps"  are  manufactured  into  leather 
of  the  finest  quality,  and  lower  grades  of  leather  are  pro- 
duced from  the  "Spots."  The  "White-coat  skins  are  dyed 
black  or  brown,  and  under  the  name  of  "Wool-seals"  are 
sold  to  furriers  by  whom  they  are  w^orked  up  into  muffs, 
collars,  capes  and  other  articles  of  fur  wear.  The  bulk  of 
the  skins  are  sent  to  London  for  sale. 

The  Crested  or  Hooded  Seal,  also  known  as  the  blad- 
der-nose seal,  because  the  males  have  an  appendage  on 
the  nose  which  they  are  able  to  distend  at  pleasure,  is 
the  boldest  and  fiercest  of  all  True  Seals.  It  is  about  the 
same  size  as  the  Grey  Seal ;  the  full-grown  males  measur- 
ing from  seven  and  a  half  to  eight  feet  in  length.  This 
species  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  all  others  by  the 
peculiar  casque-like  prominence  crowning  the  forepart 
of  the  head.  It  has  the  same  migratory  habits  as  the 
Greenland  Seal,  whose  habitat  it  shares ;  and,  like  the  lat- 
ter prefers  the  ice  floes  in  the  open  sea  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  land;  but  "Hoods"  and  "Harps"  are  never 
found  on  the  same  floe. 

The  young  of  the  Crested  Seal  are  born  on  the  ice  in 
March;  and  the  parents  will  often  lose  their  lives  in  de- 
fense of  their  offspring,  rather  than  seek  safety  in  flight. 

The  ground  color  of  the  coat,  after  the  second  year,  is 
a  blackish  blue,  becoming  lighter  on  the  flanks  and  the 
nether  parts.     The  head  and  limbs  are  uniformly  black. 


216  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

and  the  body  is  marked  with  whitish  spots.  The  skins 
are  known  to  commerce  as  "Bluebacks."  They  are  chiefly 
used  for  shoe  trimmings,  muffs,  gloves,  military  caps  and 
clothing,  but  they  are  not  nearly  so  abundant  as  the 
Greenland  Seal  skins. 


The  Beaxded  Seal,  probably  the  largest  of  all  northern 
True  Seals,  is  circumpolar  in  distribution;  never  being 
found  south  of  Labrador  on  the  American,  or  of  the  North 
Sea  on  the  European  side  of  the  Atlantic.  It  is  boreal 
and  solitary  in  its  habits,  nowhere  abundant,  and  produces 
its  young  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  It  can  be  distinguished 
from  other  species  of  the  family,  by  the  beard  from  which 
it  derives  its  name,  its  superior  size,  its  broad  muzzle  and 
convex  forehead,  as  well  as  its  small  weak  teeth.  It  dif- 
fers from  all  other  Seals  in  that  the  third  or  middle  digit 
of  the  front  flipper  is  longer  than  the  rest,  while  in  the 
other  species  the  digits  of  the  front  flippers  decrease  in 
length  from  the  first,  or  first  and  second,  to  the  last. 

Like  the  floe-rat,  the  Bearded  Seal  makes  blow  holes  in 
the  ice;  and  a  ditsinguishing  peculiarity  is  its  habit  of 
turning  a  complete  somersault  when  about  to  dive.  Its 
color  is  a  shade  of  grey,  showing  individual  variations  in 
tint  but  always  darker  on  the  back  than  elsewhere.  This 
Seal  is  of  no  commercial  importance. 


The  Monk  Seal,  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 
Seas,  and  the  West  Indian  Seal  are  the  only  two  species 
of  the  Phocidae  that  inhabit  the  warmer  seas.  They  are 
neither  of  commercial  value,  nor  of  special  interest  other- 
wise. The  full-grown  males,  of  either  species,  will  meas- 
ure from  seven  to  eight  feet  in  length. 


217 


HAIR  SEAL  FISHERIES. 

The  pursuit  of  the  Elephant  Seal  in  the  southern  seas 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  a  profitable  occupation  in 
the)  first  half  of  the  present  century.  Owing'  to  the 
decimation  of  the  southern  species  the  sealers  have 
changed  their  field  of  operations,  and  now  the  Greenland 
Seal  is  the  species  mainly  hunted,  and  the  principal  seal- 
ing grounds  are  off  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  and  in 
the  seas  adjacent  to  Jan-Mayen  Island;  although  quite  a 
number  of  Hair  Seals,  of  other  species,  are  taken  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  in  the  White  and  Caspian  Seas. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  the  evolution  of  the  sealing 
industry  in  the  Newfoundland  district,  from  the  day 
when  the  Seals  were  taken  in  nets  set  from  the  shore 
or  beneath  the  ice,  through  various  stages  of  develop- 
ment when  expeditions  were  sent  out,  first  in  large  boats, 
and  later  in  small  schooners,  to  harpoon,  shoot  pr  club 
the  Seals  upon  the  ice  or  in  the  sea,  to  the  present  time 
when  large  steamers  carry  crews  of  from  150  to  300  men 
to  the  immense  ice  fields,  far  out  in  the  sea,  where  the  great 
herds  resort  for  the  purpose  of  producing  their  young. 

The  cubs,  which  weigh  about  five  pounds  at  the  time 
of  their  birth,  grow  so  rapi41y,  that  at  the  end  of  four 
weeks  the  skins,  with  the  three  or  four  inches  of  fat 
which  have  accumulated  beneath,  weigh  from  forty  to 
fifty  pounds  each.  It  is  at  this  time,  when  the  oil  that  is 
yielded  is  of  the  best  quality,  and  their  capture  is  easy 
because  they  have  not  yet  taken  to  the  water,  that  the 
young  Seals  are  killed.  When  the  steamer  reaches  the 
floe  upon  which  the  Seals  are  congregated  the  hunters 
take  to  the  ice,  armed  with  poles  or  gaffs  that  have  a  hook 
at  one  end,  and  are  shod  with  iron  at  the  other.  A  blow 
on  the  nose  quickly  despatches  the  animals,  and  then  the 
skins  with  the  fat  adhering  to  them  are  rapidly  detached 
with  scalping  knives.  The  skins  secured  are  rolled  into 
bundles,  and  taken  aboard  ship.  When  the  ship  reaches 
port  the  skins  are  separated  from  the  fat,  and  salted  for 
export  to  Great  Britain  and  other  parts,  where  they  are 
sold  as  "Wool-seals"  to  furriers.     The  fat  is  ground  by 


218  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

machinery  into  minute  particles  and  steamed,  and  the 
oil  resulting  from  the  process,  after  being  exposed  to  the 
rays  of  the  sun  for  a  time  in  glass-covered  tanks,  is  bar- 
reled for  exportation.  The  vessels  then  make  a  second 
trip  for  the  capture  of  the  older  animals,  whose  skins  are 
principally  used  for  leather  purposes.  These  are  taken 
either  by  shooting  them  in  the  water,  or  by  clubbing  when 
they  can  be  caught  congregating  on  the  ice.  By  a  conven- 
tion between  the  powers  interested  a  close  time  has  been 
established,  and  sailing  vessels  are  not  allowed  to  clear 
for  the  fisheries  before  March  1st,  and  steamers  before 
March  10th. 

For  years  seal  hunters  from  all  nations  conducted  op- 
erations in  the  Jan-Mayen  district,  in  a  reckless  and  bar- 
barous way;  shooting  the  mothers  as  they  were  suckling 
the  young,  and  leaving  thousands  of  their  offspring  to  die 
of  starvation  upon  the  ice ;  but  since  the  establishment  in 
1876,  by  an  international  treaty  between  England  and 
Norway,  of  a  close  time  in  these  waters,  the  industry  is 
carried  on  the  same  there  as  in  the  Newfoundland  district, 
where  the  hunters  wait  until  the  cubs  are  ready  to  leave 
the  mothers  before  killing  the  older  animals. 

The  Kussians  take  some  Seals  in  the  White  Sea,  but 
their  most  valuable  sealing  grounds  are  in  the  Caspian 
Sea,  where  the  animals  pass  the  summer  in  deep  water, 
but  in  the  autumn  resort  to  the  east  basin,  where  their 
young  are  born  in  December  and  January.  Some  of  the 
Caspian  Seals  are  taken  in  nets,  others  are  shot,  but  the 
greater  number  are  clubbed  to  death  on  the  ice.  The  Nova 
Zembla  Fisheries,  though  once  productive,  have  declined 
in  value  until  they  are  of  no  importance. 

Some  of  the  Eskimo  still  practice  what  is  probably  the 
oldest  method  of  capturing  Hair  Seals,  harpooning  from 
kayaks,  or  canoes  made  of  skins.  When  within  about 
twenty-five  feet  of  the  Seal  the  hunter  hurls  his  harpoon 
from  a  wooden  thrower.  A  bladder,  attached  to  the  har- 
poon by  a  cord,  enables  him  to  follow  the  course  of  the 
Seal  under  the  surface,  and  to  wound  it  again  and  again 
with  his  lance  as  it  comes  up  to  breathe,  before  it  is  finally 
despatched. 

In  some  parts  of  Scandinavia  the  seal  box  is  still  used 
by  the  natives.     This  is  a  contrivance  with  a  swining 


I 


Hair  Seal  Fisheries. 


219 


plank  by  means  of  which  the  Seal  as  it  attempts  to  land 
is  hurled  headlong  into  a  deep  pit. 

Where  nets  are  used,  in  Newfoundland  or  Labrador, 
two  are  usually  set  together  in  the  neighborhood  of  rocks 
to  which  the  Seals  resort,  and  they  are  always  placed  to 
the  leeward  of  the  mainland  or  some  headland.  When 
nets  are  used  in  the  Caspian  Sea  they  are  hung  from 
boats  at  some  distance  from  the  land;  and  on  Lake 
Baikal,  they  are  let  down  through  the  breathing  holes  of 
the  Seals  in  the  ice.  When  they  strike  the  nets  the  Seals, 
thrust  their  heads  through  some  of  the  meshes,  and  in 
their  efforts  to  extricate  themselves  become  completely 
involved. 


Greenland  Seal. 


Besides  the  skins,  a  valuable  product  of  the  hair  seal 
industry  is  the  oil  extracted  from  the  blubber  of  the 
young  animals  and  used  for  lighting  and  lubricating 
purposes.  The  natives  of  the  far  north  look  to  the  seals, 
not  only  for  lamp  oil,  and  the  greater  part  of  their  food, 
but  for  material  from  which  to  make  their  boats,  sledges, 
clothing  and  hunting  implements. 


220 


Hair  Seals. 


Grey  Seal.  Ringtail  Seal. 

Elephant  Seal. 


Sea  Leopard. 
Crested  Seal.  Greenland  Seal. 

Common  Seal. 


Eared  Seals  or  Sea  Lions.  221 


EARED  SEALS  (Otariidae) 

Eared  Seals  are  active,  aggressive  and  polygamous. 
They  are  not  so  highly  specialized  as  the  True  Seals,  hav- 
ing  well-marked  necks,  well-defined  external  ears  and 
hind  flippers  that  can  be  turned  forward  under  the  trunk. 
Their  fore  feet  are  nearly  as  long  as  the  hind  ones,  and 
the  soles  of  both  fore  and  hind  feet  are  entirely  devoid  of 
hair.  The  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  decrease  in  length  from 
the  first  to  the  fifth,  and  have  merely  rudimentary  claws ; 
on  the  hind  feet  the  three  middle  toes  have  better  devel- 
oped claws,  but  the  first  and  last  are  quite  clawless.  These 
animals  can  progress  fairly  well  on  the  land  by  arching 
the  back,  and  carrying  the  body  forward  with  a  sort  of 
jerk,  or  bear-like  lope.  The  males  of  the  family  are  all 
very  much  larger  than  the  females  of  their  species. 

At  one  time  all  Eared  Seals  were  grouped  under  one 
generic  title;  but  now  the  thirteen  species  considered  in 
this  Avork  are  assigned  to  five  different  genera,  and  di- 
vided into  two  sub-families ;  the  Eared  Hair  Seals,  or  Sea 
Lions,  being  grouped  together  in  the  sub-family,  Trico- 
phocinae;  and  the  Eared  Fur  Seals,  or  Sea  Bears,  being 
grouped  together  in  the  sub-family  Ulophocinae.  The 
Sea  Lions  are  always  considerably  larger,  and  much  more 
pow^erful,  than  the  Sea  Bears  found  in  the  same  locality. 
"While  these  animals  frequent  the  same  shores,  and  often 
breed  on  the  same  islands,  they  never  live  together;  as 
the  Sea  Lions,  who  are  very  shy  and  wary,  and  much 
slower  and  clumsier  in  their  movements,  seldom  travel 
as  far  inland  as  the  Sea  Bears;  and  when  they  do  meet 
by  chance  on  the  narrow  belts  of  land  to  which  the  Sea 
Lions  resort  for  their  stations,  the  Sea  Bears  always  yield 
their  places  without  a  struggle  to  their  formidable  op- 
ponents. 

The  Eared  Seals  spend  a  large  portion  of  their  time  on 
the  land,  assembling  in  great  numbers  at  regular  seasons, 
at  certain  breeding  grounds.  The  males  are  the  first  to 
arrive  at  these  rookeries  and  having  selected  individual 
stations,  about  ten  feet  square  in  size,  they  keep  up  a  con- 
tinual struggle  to  maintain  their  positions,  and  to  preserve 


222  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

the  females  they  secure.  As  the  males  who  have  suc- 
ceeded in  securing  stations  have  from  six  to  fifteen  females 
and  in  some  cases  even  a  larger  number  each,  to  protect 
from  those  who,  having  failed  in  the  struggle  for  part- 
ners, are  waiting  close  at  hand  in  the  rear  of  the  colony 
to  take  advantage  of  any  unguarded  moment  to  raid  the 
harems  of  their  successful  rivals,  the  preservation  of  the 
stations  requires  constant  .vigilance  on  the  part  of  the 
males  in  possession  of  them.  They  are  compelled  to  remain 
continually  on  the  ground  during  the  entire  breeding 
season,  undergoing  an  unbroken  fast  of  about  three 
months'  duration,  and  becoming  in  consequence  weak  and 
emaciated  to  the  last  degree  and  losing  half  their  weight 
before  they  return  to  the  water.  Some  of  the  males  show 
wonderful  strength  and  courage  in  the  defense  of  their 
homes  and  families.  The  fighting  is  mostly  done  with  the 
mouth ;  the  opponents  seizing  each  other  with  their  teeth, 
and  clenching  the  jaws,  so  the  sharp  incisors  tear  deep 
gutters  in  the  skin  and  blubber,  and  shred  the  flippers 
into  ribbons. 

The  females  are  as  gentle  as  the  males  are  truculent. 
They  remain  for  a  time  after  their  arrival  continuously 
at  the  stations  of  their  lords,  but  as  they  go  to  the  sea  at 
frequent  intervals  for  food,  they  do  not  spend  such  a  long, 
unbroken  period  on  the  shore. 

The  Sea  Lions  are  less  systematic  and  exacting  in  the 
formation  and  protection  of  their  families  than  the  Sea 
Bears;  allowing  their  consorts  to  move  more  freely  from 
place  to  place,  and  to  go  to  the  shore  accompanied  by 
their  young  to  disport  themselves  in  the  surf. 

On  the  Pribilov  Islands,  the  Sea  Lions  come  ashore,  and 
produce  their  young,  a  month  earlier  than  the  Sea  Bears. 

With  the  exception  of  the  California  species,  the  gen- 
eral color  of  all  Sea  Lions  is  a  reddish  brown  showing 
darkest  at  birth,  and  becoming  gradually  lighter  with  age. 

Sea  Bears  are  black,  or  nearly  so,  when  born ;  but  they 
become  lighter  as  they  grow  older,  through  an  abundant 
mixture  of  greyish  hairs — varying,  in  the  different  spe- 
cies, from  a  whitish  to  a  yellowish  grey.  The  adults,  of 
the  southern  species,  are  generally  much  greyer  than  the 
northern  representatives  of  the  family,  and  there  is  also 
considerable  individual  variation  of  color,  in  all  the  spe- 
cies, due  to  age,  sex  and  season. 


I 


I 


Eared  Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Lions.  223 


EARED  HAIR  SEALS 

The  Patagonia  Sea  Lion  was  met  with  by  Magellan  as 
early  as  1579,  and  was  the  first  species  to  be  exhibited 
alive  in  England,  a  specimen  having  been  bought  by  the 
London  Zoological  Society  in  1866.  It  is  found  as  far 
north  as  the  Coast  of  Chili  on  the  Pacific  side,  and  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  South  America; 
and  as  far  south  as  the  Falkland  Islands  and  Terra  del 
Fuego.  It  is  docile  and  clever,  but  very  suspicious,  sel- 
dom leaving  the  shore  line.  It  always  selects  isthmuses 
and  headlands  where  it  can  have  an  unobstructed  outlook, 
for  its  resting  place  when  it  does  wander  away  from  the 
water's  edge.  The  representatives  of  this  species 
are  solitary  in  their  habits,  for  even  where  a  number  of 
families,  of  from  six  to  fifteen  each,  are  seen  in  the  same 
creek,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  individuals  of  different 
families  do  not  associate  with  one  another.  Their  daily 
occupation  seems  to  be  divided  between  sleeping  and  pro- 
curing food;  at  high  tide  they  take  to  fishing  near  the 
entrances  of  the  fresh  water  rivulets  into  the  sea,  the  rest 
of  the  time  they  lie  huddled  together.  The  full-grown 
males  of  the  species  measure  about  seven  feet  in  length, 
and  are  of  a  rich  brown  color.  The  young  are  of  a  deep 
chestnut,  and  the  adult  males  of  a  brownish  grey  shade. 
The  ears  of  this  animal  are  smaller  than  those  of  any 
other  Sea  Lion,  and  it  is  also  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  distinct  mane.  The  profile  of  its  head  is  nearly 
straight. 

The  Northern  Sea  Lion,  discovered  by  Behring,  in  1741, 
is  noted  for  its  leonine  expression  and  ferocity  of  counten- 
ance. It  has  an  entirely  different  head  from  that  of  the 
southern  species,  having  a  pointed  nose  and  flattened  pro- 
file, like  the  northern  Sea  Bear.  It  is  the  largest  repre- 
sentative of  the  Eared  Seal  family,  the  full-grown  males 
often  weighing  from  1,000  to  1,300  pounds,  and  measuring 
from  ten  to  thirteen  feet  in  length,  and  from  eight  to  ten 
feet  in  girth.  The  young  are  of  a  dark  chocolate  color, 
and  the  adults  of  a  golden  rufous  or  ochrey  tint,  the  shade 
varying  with  the  seasons.     Its  principal  breeding  places 


224  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

are  on  the  Aleutian  and  Pribolov  Islands  in  the  Bering 
Sea;  but  the  northern  limit  of  its  habitat  is  apparently 
determined  by  the  southern  border  of  the  Polar  floating 
ice,  while  its  southern  range  extends  to  California  on  one 
side,  and  to  Japan  on  the  other  side  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean.  Although  provided  with  flippers,  apparently  the 
same  as  those  of  the  Sea  Bears,  these  animals  are  unable 
to  use  them  in  the  same  free  manner;  for  where  the  Sea 
Bears  can  be  driven  six  miles,  the  Sea  Lions  can  barely  go 
two.  They  seldom  raise  their  hind  quarters  from  the 
ground,  but  draw  them  after  the  fore  feet  with  a  slide 
over  the  grass  or  sand.  The  Sea  Lions  do  not  leave  the 
islands  in  the  fall  as  the  Fur  Seals  do  to  return  in  the 
spring ;  but  remain  there  the  whole  year,  keeping  close  to  the 
shores  near  the  stations  even  after  the  close  of  the  breed- 
ing season,  although  they  are  only  seen  in  small  groups 
from  the  time  the  cold  weather  sets  in  late  in  December, 
or  early  in  January,  until  spring  once  more  frees  the 
islands  of  ice  and  snow\  The  voice  of  the  Northern  Sea 
Lion  is  a  deep,  grand  roar.  Unlike  the  Northern  Sea  Bears, 
the  Sea  Lions  have  a  marked  affection  for  their  young; 
the  males  often  going  into  the  water  with  the  females  to 
watch  over  the  cubs,  as  they  learn  how  to  swim. 


The  California  Sea  Lion,  or  West  Coast  Seal,  is  also 
found  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Pacific ;  but  the  northern 
boundary  of  its  habitat  is  the  southern  limit  of  the  range 
of  the  Northern  Sea  Lion.  The  general  habits  of  these 
animals  seem  to  be  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Northern 
Sea  Lion,  but  they  utter  a  sharp  bark,  or  howl,  by  which 
they  can  easily  be  distinguished  even  at  night,  when  it  is 
impossible  to  note  differences  in  size  and  color  and  truc- 
tural  appearance.  The  shape  of  the  head  of  the  Cali- 
fornia Sea  Lion  is  different  from  that  of  all  other  Seals, 
resembling  that  of  the  dog-faced  baboon.  The  cubs  are 
almost  black  in  color,  but  the  general  color  of  the  adults 
is  a  chestnut  brown,  deeper  on  the  under  parts  and  limbs 
than  on  the  back.  The  length  of  the  full-grown  males 
varies  from  seven  to  eight  feet.  California  Sea  Lions 
breed  on  the  Farralone  Islands  and  the  island  of  Santa 
Barbara.  During  the  hauling-up  season  they  congregate 
there  in  vast  numbers,  and  are  considered  one  of  the 
sights  of  California,  summer  visitors  to   San  Francisco 


Eared  Hair  Seals  or  Sea  Lions.  225 

seldom  failing  to  make  excursions  to  Seal  Point,  about  six 
miles  from  the  city.  As  each  of  these  animals  consumes 
from  ten  to  forty  pounds  of  fish  a  day,  it  is  a  natural  con- 
sequence that  most  of  the  thousands  of  Sea  Lions  who 
are  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  San  Francisco  during 
the  summer  are  obliged  to  swarm  away  in  various  direc- 
tions in  a  quest  of  new  feeding  places  at  the  close  of  the 
pairing  season  in  September.  This  is  the  Sea  Lion  often- 
est  seen  in  captivity,  as  it  seems  to  thrive  better  in  that 
state  than  any  other  representative  of  its  family.  Its 
wonderful  sagacity  and  activity  are  best  illustrated  by 
the  method  it  pursues  in  capturing  the  Sea  Gull.  Sight- 
ing its  prey,  the  Sea  Lion  will  dive  deeply  and  swim  some 
distance  under  the  water,  then  it  will  rise  and  expose  the 
tip  of  its  nose  above  the  water  giving  it  a  rotary  motion 
like  a  water  buoy  at  play.  The  Sea  Gull,  attracted  by  the 
object,  will  alight  to  catch  it,  only  to  be  seized  and  de- 
voured by  its  wily  foe. 

Hooker's  Sea  Lion,  found  south  of  New  Zealand;  and 
the  Australian  Hair  Seal,  believed  by  many  to  be  the  miss- 
ing link  between  the  Pur  and  Hair  Seals  because  the  cubs 
have  a  soft  thick  underfur,  which  however  disappears  in 
the  adults,  are  the  remaining  species  of  Sea  Lions. 


Sea  Lions  are  too  formidable  to  be  taken  in  nets,  or 
clubbed  to  death,  and  are  generally  shot  with  rifles.  Where 
they  congregate  in  large  numbers,  as  on  the  Pribilov 
Islands,  they  are  driven  from  the  shore  to  a  village  from 
ten  to  twelve  miles  inland ;  the  journey  taking  about  five 
days.  A  man  will  get  between  the  edge  of  the  water  and 
the  herd,  and  by  running  at  them  with  an  umbrella,  which 
he  expands  as  he  approaches,  will  alarm  and  rouse  the  rear 
line  of  animals,  who  will  press  forward  upon  those  in 
front  until  the  whole  herd  is  in  motion.  By  shouting  and 
waving  flags,  at  the  rear  and  on  the  flanks  of  the  herd, 
the  Sea  Lions  are  kept  moving  in  the  right  direction  un- 
til they  reach  their  destination,  or  it  is  necessary  to  halt 
them  for  a  rest.  At  the  killing-grounds  the  full-grown 
males  are  shot  with  rifles,  after  which  the  slaughter  is 
continued  with  lances.  The  skins  are  valued  only  for 
leather  purposes;  as  the  under  fur,  in  the  few  cases 
where  it  is  present,  is  very  scarce. 


226 


Hair  Seals. 


Seals  Swimming. 


22" 


FUR  SEALS 

We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  the  most  valuable 
and  interesting  of  all  Seals,  the  Sea  Bears  of  the  Eared 
Seal  group,  commonly  called  Fur  Seals  because  they  are 
the  species  possessing  the  soft,  dense  underfur  which  pro- 
duces the  beautiful  "sealskin"  of  commerce.  Of  the 
eight  different  kinds  of  ''sealskin"  recognized  in  com- 
merce, three— ''Shetland,"  "Lobos  Island"  and  "Cape" 
— are  produced  from  the  skins  of  the  Southern  Sea  Bears ; 
and  five— "Alaska,"  "Victoria"  or  "North  West," 
"Copper  Island,"  "Robben  Island,"  and  "Japan" — are 
the  products  of  the  skins  of  the  Northern  Sea  Bears.  The 
variations  in  the  quality,  and  size  of  the  skins  are  due  to 
differences  in  the  age,  sex  and  location  of  the  habitat  of 
the  animals,  rather  than  to  generic  distinctions.  Fur 
Seals  are  valued  only  for  the  skins,  as  the  oil  obtained 
from  them  is  too  rank  to  be  refined. 

The  Fur  Seal  is  polygamous.  Steller,  its  discoverer, 
found  it  living  in  families,  numbering  eight,  fifteen,  fifty, 
and  in  some  cases  even  one  hundred  and  twenty  females 
to  one  bull.  An  exact  account  of  the  full  birth  rate  of 
pups  in  1912,  showed  an  average  family  of  sixty  cows  to 
one  bull,  with  idle  bulls  to  spare. 


Shetland  Seal  is  the  name  commonly  given  to  the  skins 
of  all  Sea  Bears  of  the  southern  seas,  but  rightly  it 
should  only  be  applied  to  those  taken  from  the  Sea  Bears 
of  the  South  Shetland  Islands  and  adjacent  groups. 

The  cubs  of  this  species  are  almost  black,  but  the  gen- 
eral color  of  the  adults  is  a  silvery  grey,  blending  into  a 
deep  rich  brown  on  the  sides  and  the  belly  behind  the 
flippers.  The  underfur  is  of  a  reddish  or  deep  pink  color, 
and  being  longer,  softer  and  more  abundant  than  that  of 
any  other  species  it  produces  the  richest  and  most  beau- 
tiful "sealskin."  At  one  time  Sea  Bears  were  very  num- 
erous around  the  South  Shetland,  South  Georgian,  South 
Falkland  and  other  islands  of  the  Antarctic  and  Indian 
Oceans.  In  the  year  1800,  112,000  skins  were  shipped  from 
the  South  Georgian  Islands  alone,  and  320,000  skins  were 


228  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

taken  off  the  South  Shetland  Islands,  in  1820  and  1821; 
but  the  immense  herds  of  Southern  Sea  Bears,  at  one  time 
numbering  up  into  millions,  have  been  gradually  reduced 
by  overcatching,  and  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  the 
females  and  the  young,  until  today  a  few  hundred  skins 
represent  the  entire  catch  of  a  year.  Southern  Sea  Bears 
breed  in  December  and  January. 


The  Cape  Horn,  and  Lobos  Island,  Fur  Seals  belong  to 
the  same  genus  and  are  in  fact  the  same  animal  in  dif- 
ferent localities  of  its  habitat.  Like  all  Sea  Bears  of  the 
Southern  Hemisphere,  these  animals  are  longer  and  nar- 
rower and  have  more  depressed  muzzles  than  their  north- 
ern cousins.  The  range  of  the  species  extends  from  the 
Gulf  of  Tres  Monte  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan  in  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean.  They  are  most  abundant  on  the  Cordova  Penin- 
sula, and  the  Lobos  Islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  LaPlata 
Eiver,  the  best  representatives  of  the  species  coming  from 
the  latter  district.  In  color  they  are  yellowish  brown, 
with  sides  of  a  darker  hue.  As  compared  with  the  North- 
ern species  the  fur  of  these  Seals  is  longer  and  of  poorer 
quality;  but  the  skins  are  easy  to  work  and  take  the  dye 
well.  They  are  used  quite  extensively  for  repair  work,  over- 
coat linings,  and  other  purposes  for  which  moderate- 
priced  skins  are  demanded.  The  Lobos  Island  breeding 
grounds  are  under  the  protection  of  the  government  of 
Uruguay. 


I 


I 


Other  species  of  Southern  Sea  Bears  are  the  "South 
Sea  Seals"  (Otaria-gazella)  of  the  Crozet  and  Kerguelan 
Islands;  the  ''San  Louis  Seal,"  of  the  same  genus,  fre- 
quenting Marion,  Prince  Edward  and  St.  Paul  Islands; 
the  Lima  Fur  Seal ;  and  the  New  Zealand  and  Australian 
Fur  Seal  (Arctocephalus-fostereri)  ;  but  the  first  three 
species  have  been  virtually  exterminated;  and  the  others 
are  too  poor  in  quality  to  be  worthy  of  consideration. 

Alaska  Seal  is  a  name  which  strictly  speaking  should 
only  be  applied  to  the  skins  of  the  bachelor  Sea  Bears 
taken  on  the  Pribolov  Islands  in  the  Bering  Sea;  but 
many  dealers  do  not  hesitate  to  sell  the  skins  of  the  Cop- 
per Island  and  other  Northern  Sea  Bears  of  the  same 
genus,  as  "Alaskas";  and  some  even  go  so  far  as  to  in- 
clude the  skins  of  all  Fur  Seals  under  this  name.     The 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  229 

reason  for  this  will  be  apparent,  when  it  is  understood 
that  the  "sealskin"  obtained  from  the  Pribolov  Islands 
skins  is  next  in  quality  to  the  Shetland,  and  is  superior  to 
that  produced  from  any  other  Sea  Bear.  The  Northern 
Sea  Bears  would  long  since  have  shared  the  fate  of  the 
Southern  species,  if  the  United  States  government  had 
not,  in  a  measure,  limited  the  catch,  by  confining  the  right 
to  kill  Sea  Bears  on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  to  a  company 
Avorking  under  a  lease  from  the  government,  and  subject 
to  government  restrictions.  When  the  lease  of  the  North 
American  Commercial  Company  expired  in  1909,  the 
government  took  over  the  management  of  its  own  busi- 
ness at  the  rookeries  on  the  Pribilov  Islands;  and  during 
1910  and  1911  twenty-five  thousand  skins  taken  by  the 
government  on  the  Islands,  were  sold  for  eight  hundred 
thousand  dollars.  Since  1847  no  female  Sea  Bears  have 
been  killed  on  the  islands. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  who  held  the  lease 
from  1869  to  1889,  are  said  to  have  realized  over  $33,000,- 
000,  from  the  sale  of  furs  during  that  time;  and  it  is  es- 
timated that  since  the  purchase  of  Alaska  in  1867,  citizens 
of  the  United  States  have  received  more  than  $50,000,000, 
for  skins  taken  on  the  Pribilov  Islands. 

The  payment  of  $7,000,000  to  Russia  for  the  territory  of 
Alaska  has  proved  a  profitable  investment  for  the  United 
States;  for,  besides  the  profits  that  have  accrued  to  in- 
dividual citizens  from  the  industry,  the  government  has 
realized  over  $10,000,000  from  the  sale  or  leasing  of  the 
sealing  privileges  on  the  Pribilov  Islands. 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  duties  paid  on  dressed 
skins,  returned  from  London  for  consumption  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  paid  the  United 
States  an  annual  rental  of  $50,000,  and  a  royalty  of  $2.25 
per  skin,  for  the  privilege  of  killing  75,000  male  seals 
each  year  on  the  island  of  St.  Paul,  and  25,000  on  the 
island  of  St.  George. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  twenty-year  lease  secured  by 
the  North  American  Commercial  Company  in  1889,  no 
dogs  or  vessels,  other  than  those  in  the  employ  of  the 
company,  were  permitted  to  touch  at,  or  to  land  persons 
or  merchandise  on  the  islands  of  St.  Paul  and  St.  George, 


230  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

except  in  case  of  shipwreck  or  distress ;  and  the  company 
was  obligated  to  pay  the  government  a  yearly  rental  tax 
of  $2.00  per  skin,  for  the  privilege  of  killing  each  year 
20,000  bachelor  Seals,  between  the  ages  of  one  and  five 
years.  In  addition  to  the  payments  to  the  government 
the  company  was  obliged  to  furnish  the  natives  of  the 
islands  mentioned,  such  quantities  of  salt,  and  such  a 
number  of  barrels,  as  they  might  need  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  meat  kept  for  food ,  and  eighty  tons  of  coal  an- 
nually; to  erect,  and  keep  in  repair,  comfortable  dwell- 
ings, and  a  suitable  house  of  worship;  to  establish,  and 
maintain  for  eight  months  each  year,  proper  schools  for 
the  education  of  the  young ;  to  provide  competent  physic- 
ians and  medicines  for  the  sick;  and  to  supply  the 
widows  and  orphans,  and  the  aged  and  infirm  inhabitants 
of  the  islands,  with  the  necessities  of  life.  The  govern- 
ment reserved  the  right  to  change  the  terms  of  the  lease 
at  any  time  by  giving  due  notice  of  its  intentions,  and  re- 
quired the  company  to  deposit,  with  the  United  States 
Treasury  at  Washington,  the  sum  of  $50,000  as  a  guaran- 
tee fund. 

The  only  change  made  in  the  conditions  of  this  lease 
was  one  limiting  the  catch  to  15,000  skins  yearly,  and 
obliging  the  company  to  brand  and  sequester  one  thousand 
•each  of  one  and  three-year-old  male  Seals  before  the  killing 
commenced.  In  spite  of  all  restrictions  it  is  claimed  there 
had  been  up  to  1906  a  falling  off  of  forty-two  per  cent,  in 
the  number  of  breeding  males  or  bulls,  and  the  Congress- 
ional Committee  having  the  matter  in  charge  recommended 
the  entire  suspension  of  killing  on  the  islands  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  as  the  only  way  to  prevent  the  complete  ex- 
termination of  the  species.  Those  who  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  subject  were  however  convinced  that,  in- 
asmuch as  the  proportion  of  males  and  females  is  about 
the  same  at  birth,  the  polygamous  nature  of  these  animals 
will  safely  allow  the  killing  of  six  or  even  nine  out  of 
every  ten  males.  They  therefore  claimed  that  the 
preservation  of  the  herd  did  not  depend  upon  further 
protection  for  the  males  on  the  islands,  but  upon  the  ces- 
sation of  pelagic  sealing,  which  results  in  the  destruction 
of  at  least  three  lives  for  every  skin  taken — the  mother, 
the  unborn  offspring  and  the  nursing  pup.   That  this  was 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  231 

not  an  idle  contention  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  1896 
over  16,000  young  Seals  were  found  dead  from  starva- 
tion on  the  Pribilov  Islands  because  they  had  been  de- 
prived of  their  natural  sustenance;  while  careful  esti- 
mates, made  in  1897,  showed  that  since  the  b*eginning  of 
pelagic  sealing  300,000  young  Seals  had  died  as  the  direct 
result  of  the  slaughter  of  400,000  adult  female  Seals  at 
sea. 

"Originally  descended  from  a  land  animal,  the  Fur 
Seal  has  become  adapted  to  life  in  the  open  sea,  and  seeks 
the  land  only  for  breeding  purposes.  When  the  young 
are  able  to  care  for  themselves,  and  on  the  approach  of 
winter,  the  animals  leave  their  island  home  and  the  long 
migration  down  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  latitude  of  Santa 
Barbara  in  California  begins.  The  return  journey,  which 
brings  them  back  to  the  island,  is  not  completed  until  June 
of  the  following  year.  The  food  they  consume  on  the  islands 
in  the  summer  is  procured  at  a  distance  of  from  one 
hundred  to  two  hundred  miles  from  the  rookeries." 

The  Indians  have  always  hunted  the  stragglers  from 
the  migratory  herd  who  came  within  reach  of  the  shore, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  spring  of  1879,  that  sailing  vessels 
were  used,  to  take  the  hunters  out  to  meet  the  main  body 
of  the  herd,  and  follow  its  course  northward.  In  time  the 
hunting  extended  to  the  summer  feeding  grounds  in  the 
Bering  Sea,  where  the  female  Seal  was  the  chief  victim 
because  of  the  greater  regularity  of  its  feeding,  leaving 
many  unprotected  young  to  die  of  starvation. 

Beginning  with  the  catch  of  eight  thousand  in  1879, 
the  number  of  Seals  taken  annually  by  Pelagic  sealers 
steadily  increased  on  account  of  the  extension  of  the 
fleet;  and  in  1894,  sixty-one  thousand  skins  were  taken. 
Since  1894,  the  pelagic  catch  has  declined,  with  the  de- 
clining herd ;  but  the  actual  toll,  in  the  period  from  1879 
to  1911,  exceeded  one  million  without  taking  into  account 
the  seals  killed  but  not  recovered.  As  the  adult  males  do 
not  as  a  rule  accompany  the  female  and  their  young  on 
the  long  journey  to  the  south,  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
animals  destroyed  by  pelagic  sealers  were  females. 

The  United  States  attempted  to  stop  pelagic  sealing 
years  ago,  and  in  1886  seized  a  number  of  British  vessels 
found  pursuing  the  industry  in  waters  declared  closed 


232  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

by  this  government.  England  however  successfully  con- 
tested the  claim  of  the  United  States  to  jurisdiction  in  the 
Bering  Sea  outside  of  the  three-mile  limit,  but  the  In- 
ternational Tribunal,  which  sat  in  Paris  in  1893,  and  de- 
cided against  the  claims  of  this  government,  as  a  compro- 
mise measure  established  a  close  season  from  May  1st  to 
July  31st,  in  both  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Pacific 
Oceans;  and  excluded  all  killing  in  the  waters  within 
sixty  miles  of  the  Pribilov  Islands,  These  conditions, 
however,  failed  to  accomplish  the  desired  result;  and  the 
herd,  which  in  1874  numbered  over  4,000,000,  and  in  1891, 
1,000,000,  had  in  1909  been  reduced  to  less  than  200,000. 

A  treaty  was  finally  concluded  on  July  7,  1911,  by 
which  the  Governments  of  the  United  States,  England, 
Japan  and  Russia  agreed  to  co-operate  in  abolishing 
pelagic  sealing  for  fifteen  years.  In  this  treaty  it  is 
agreed;  that  the  United  States  and  Russia,  as  the  owners 
of  the  principal  fur  seal  herds,  shall  each  pay  to  Great 
Britain  and  Japan,  fifteen  percent  of  their  land  sealing 
operations.  This  treaty  went  into  effect  in  1912,  and  it  is 
estimated  that  as  a  result  fifteen  thousand  breeding  fur 
seal  females,  who  under  the  operation  of  pelagic  sealing 
would  have  failed  to  reach  the  islands,  brought  forth  their 
young  at  the  rookeries.  This  fact  alone  demonstrates  the 
cause  of  the  herd's  decline  as  well  as  its  ability  to  restore 
itself  if  protected  from  further  loss  from  this  source.  On 
February  15,  1912,  a  bill,  which  has  since  become  a  law, 
was  introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives  to  give 
effect  to  certain  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  1911.  An 
effort  was  at  once  made  to  attach  to  this  bill  an  amend- 
ment providing  for  the  suspension  of  all  land  sealing  dur- 
ing the  period  of  the  treaty.  The  amendment  was  defeated 
as  originally  offered,  but  a  compromise  was  finally  effect- 
ed fixing  the  period  of  the  suspension  of  land  sealing  at 
^ye  years,  and  permitting  only  the  killing  of  a  limited 
number  of  the  animals  as  food  for  the  natives  on  the 
islands;  and  that  is  now  the  law. 

As  the  essential  consideration  in  the  treaty  of  1911,  is 
the  agreement  of  the  United  States  and  Russia,  to  give 
to  Great  Britain  and  Japan  each  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the 
land  catch,  to  compensate  the  pelagic  sealers ;  this  action 
was  an   actual  repudiation,  by  this  government  of  the 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  233 

terms  of  the  treaty,  and  for  a  time  threatened  to  lead  to 
its  abrogation  by  Great  Britain  and  Japan,  as  the  killing 
of  the  superfluous  males  on  the  islands  would  yield  more 
than  twelve  thousand  skins  annually,  while  killing  for 
food  supplies  alone  would  not  allow  of  the  taking  of  more 
than  from  three  to  five  thousand. 

Apart  from  the  question  of  bad  faith,  it  is  the  judg- 
ment of  those  who  are  posted  on  this  subject  that  the 
cutting  down  of  the  number  of  bachelor  seals  to  be  killed 
on  the  islands  from  the  number  provided  in  the  treaty, 
will  result  in  the  existance,  in  1917,  of  at  least  thirty 
thousand  superfluous  bulls,  who  in  their  struggles  to 
establish  their  harems,  will  not  only  destroy  one  another, 
but  many  of  the  female  and  the  young  as  well.  The 
amendment,  instead  of  helping  to  conserve  the  herd,  will 
hasten  its  destruction.  Statistics  show  that  only  fifteen 
hundred  bulls  w^ere  needed  for  the  herd  on  the  island  in 
3912. 

Another  thing  about  which  those  who  voted  for  the 
amendment  seemed  to  be  ignorant  of,  is  the  fact  that 
the  carcasses  of  the  seals  are  needed  for  the  sustenance 
of  the  blue  foxes,  and  other  subsidiary  life  on  the  islands. 
As  the  government  has  taken  forty  thousand  blue  foxes 
during  the  time  it  has  been  in  possession  there ;  and  as 
the  skins  of  three  year  old  bachelor  seals  are  worth  forty 
dollars  apiece;  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  money  loss  to 
the  government  by  the  passing  of  this  amendment. 

Previous  to  this  the  United  States  Congress,  in  1890, 
passed  laws  prohibiting  American  vessels  from  engaging 
in  pelagic  sealing,  and  preventing  the  bringing  into  this 
country  of  the  Victoria  or  Northwest  Coast  skins  which 
are  the  fruit  of  this  industry.  In  the  absence  of  co-opera- 
tion on  the  part  of  England,  Russia  and  Japan  the  only 
result  of  this  legislation  was  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  Canadian  and  other  foreign  vessels  engaged  in  the 
work  of  indiscriminate  slaughter;  and  it  looked  as  if, 
for  want  of  united  action  on  the  part  of  the  great 
maritime  powers  interested,  it  would  be  only  a  short 
time  before  human  greed  and  folly  would  so  reduce  the 
number  of  Sea  Bears,  in  northern  waters,  that  their 
pursuit  would  no  longer  be  profitable.  Referring  to  this 
condition  in  a  message  to  Congress,  President  Roosevelt 


234  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

said:  ''In  case  we  are  compelled  to  abandon  the  hope 
of  making  arrangements  with  other  governments,  to 
put  an  end  to  the  hideous  cruelty  now  incident  to  pelagic 
sealing,  it  will  be  a  question  for  your  serious  considera- 
tion how  far  we  should  continue  to  maintain  and  protect 
the  Seal  herd  on  land,  with  the  result  of  continuing  such 
a  practice ;  and  whether  it  is  not  better  to  end  the  practice, 
by  exterminating  the  Seal  herd  ourselves,  in  the  most 
humane  manner  possible." 

There  was  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  wisdom  of  the  President's  suggestion  and  a 
joint  resolution  introduced  in  the  Congress,  in  1907,  pro- 
viding for  the  killing  of  all  female  Seals  on^the  islands 
down  to  a  minimum  of  not  less  than  10,000,  and  of  all 
male  Seals  down  to  a  minimum  of  not  less  than  1,000, 
was  killed  in  the  House  Ways  and  Means  Committee. 
The  opponents  of  the  measure  justly  claimed  that  if  such 
reduction  was  desirable,  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and 
Labor  should  be  empowered  to  authorize  the  North 
American  Commercial  Company  to  kill  the  Seals  on  the 
islands  down  to  the  number  designated,  and  thus  accom- 
plish the  result  aimed  at  without  any  violation  of  the 
contract  with  the  lessees,  or  expense  to  the  government, 
which  on  the  contrary  would  receive  the  sum  of  $10.22 
for  every  skin  thus  taken  by  the  lessees. 

It  was  the  judgment  of  the  writer  at  that  time  that 
there  should  be  no  change  in  the  provisions  then  existing 
for  the  killing  of  Sea  Bears  on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  unless 
England,  Russia  and  Japan  would  agree  to  a  convention 
to  put  a  stop  to  pelagic  sealing  in  northern  w^aters;  and 
that  in  the  absence  of  such  an  agreement,  the  United 
States  government  should,  at  all  times,  keep  a  sufficient 
force  on  the  islands,  and  in  the  Bering  Sea,  to  compel 
the  observance  of  the  regulations  of  the  Tribunal  of  Paris, 
and  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  repetition  of  such  a 
raid  as  was  made  on  the  Island  of  St.  Paul,  in  June,  1906, 
by  the  crews  of  Japanese  vessels.  He  claimed  it  was  also 
imperative  for  the  better  protection  of  American  interests 
in  the  Pribilov  Islands,  that  the  restrictions  regarding  the 
landing  of  aliens  and  citizens  upon  the  islands  of  St.  Paul 
and  St.  George  should  be  made  to  apply  to  Sea  Otter, 
Walrus,  and  Sea  Lion  Islands  as  well,  so  that  designing 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  235 

persons  would  not  have  it  in  their  power  to  establish  a 
base  of  operations  within  easy  reaching  distance  of  the 
rookeries. 

Hutchinson  Hill  Rookery,  on  the  Island  of  St.  Paul, 
is  the  principal  breeding  place  of  the  Alaska  Seals.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  the  island  is  deserted,  the  Seals,  late  in  the 
fall,  following  the  southward  migration  of  the  fish  upon 
which  they  feed.  The  first  males  to  revisit  the  old  haunts, 
in  the  following  spring,  are  very  shy  and  sensitive;  and 
will  spend  several  days  swimming  around  among  the 
rocks  before  venturing  to  land.  The  first  arrivals,  though 
not  always  the  oldest,  are  generally  the  finest  specimens, 
of  their  race  who  are  fully  capable  of  maintaining  pos- 
session of  the  stations  they  may  select.  As  a  rule  the 
males  do  not  re-occupy  the  same  stations  year  after  year, 
although  some  will  occasionally  do  so  for  a  number  of 
seasons.  Only  a  few  of  the  bulls  come  ashore  in  May,  but 
when  the  humid,  foggy,  summer  weather  sets  in,  about 
the  first  week  in  June,  they  come  up,  fat  and  sleek,  by 
hundreds  and  thousands,  and  having  selected  their  sta- 
tions, prepare  for  the  reception  of  the  females  who  begin 
to  arrive  from  three  to  four  weeks  later. 

The  first  females  to  land  are  always  received  with 
marked  attention  by  the  stronger  bulls,  who  by  virtue 
of  their  superior  prowess  have  succeeded  in  securing 
possession  of  the  most  available  stations  nearest  the 
shore.  They  are  seldom  allowed  to  remain  long  with 
these  however,  as  the  males  from  the  more  inland  sta- 
tions take  possession  of  them  the  first  time  their  mas- 
ters are  away  on  the  outlook  for  new  additions  to  their 
harems.  In  this  way  some  of  the  unfortunate  females 
are  again  and  again  taken  by  the  scruff  of  the  neck, 
as  a  cat  seizes  its  kittens,  and  passed  on  from  station 
to  station  until  they  find  security  at  last  in  one  of  the 
families  farthest  away  from  the  water.  By  the  time 
the  last  batch  lands  late  in  July,  the  males  have  become 
so  exhausted  by  constant  fighting,  and  the  stations  have 
become  so  fully  occupied,  that  the  late  arrivals  are  allowed 
to  crowd  their  way  unmolested  through  the  fifteen  or 
sixteen  rows  of  stations  intervening  between  the  shore 
and  the  open  ground,  to  the  rear  of  the  colony.  There 
they  congregate   in   droves,   always   being  careful   how- 


236  Carnivoba  Pinnipedia. 

ever  to  select  positions  where  there  are  no  depressions 
in  which  the  water  can  collect  in  puddles. 

Pairing  begins  immediately  after  the  birth  of  the  cubs, 
who  are  born  shortly  after  the  landing  of  the  females, 
and  come  into  the  world  with  their  eyes  open.  At  birth 
the  young  Sea  Bears  weigh  from  three  to  four  pounds, 
and  measure  from  ten  to  twelve  inches.  Their  skins  are 
valueless,  but  many  of  the  young  Seals  are  killed  by  the 
natives  for  food.  The  females  make  frequent  visits  to 
the  sea  after  the  birth  of  their  offspring,  and  the  cubs  at 
such  times  gather  together  by  thousands.  A  mother  Seal 
upon  her  return  from  the  water  never  has  any  difficulty, 
however,  in  singling  out  her  own  offspring  by  its  cries,  but 
will  without  a  moment's  hesitation  and  with  unerring  cer- 
tainty push  her  way  direct  to  the  spot  in  the  assembly 
where  it  happens  to  be. 

Early  in  August  the  bulls  leave  their  families,  and 
the  majority  of  them  do  not  return  to  the  islands  after 
going  to  the  sea;  and  those  who  do  come  back,  instead 
of  returning  to  their  stations,  remain  near  the  shore  until 
the  colony  migrates  in  the  fall.  After  the  departure  of 
the  males  the  family  parties  break  up ;  the  females  and  the 
cubs,  together  with  the  older  males  who  did  not  succeed 
in  getting  partners,  and  the  younger  males  who  up  to  this 
time  have  been  prevented  by  their  older  brethren  from 
gaining  a  footfold  on  the  shore,  take  possession  of  the 
entire  sea  area  in  a  very  disorderly  manner.  At  this 
period  the  females  spend  three-fourths  of  their  time  in 
the  water,  and  the  cubs  nearest  the  shore  make  their  first 
attempts  at  swimming.  Though  at  first  they  are  very 
awkward  and  tire  quickly  the  cubs  soon  become  adepts 
at  the  art,  and  by  the  middle  of  September  all  the  young 
have  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  water,  and  have 
deserted  the  higher  ground  to  take  positions  on  the  rocks 
and  beaches  near  the  water's  edge,  where  they  remain 
until  the  southward  migration  of  the  colony  begins  a  few 
weeks  later. 

By  November  the  islands  are  deserted  by  the  great 
mass  of  Sea  Bears,  although  a  few  remain  until  driven 
off  by  the  ice  and  snow  in  December. 

The  Sea  Bears,  which  the  lessees  had  the  privilege  of 
killing  on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  are  the  males  from  one  to 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  237 

five  years  old  called  "Hollus-Chuekie"  or  Bachelor  Seals 
by  the  natives,  because  they  are  not  allowed  by  the  old 
bulls  to  mix  with  the  females. 

The  Bachelor  Seals  arrive  at  the  islands  early  in  the 
season,  but  they  are  not  compelled  to  undergo  any  long 
periods  of  fasting.  Even  when  they  take  a  position  in 
the  rear  of  the  colony,  they  are  allowed  to  make  their  way 
to  and  from  the  beach  through  passages  between  the 
stations. 

The  hauling  ground  they  select  however  is  generally 
a  space  on  the  beach  at  some  distance  from  the  stations 
and  extending  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  inland.  They 
are  restless  creatures,  but  though  very  sportive  and  frolic- 
some they  never  quarrel  or  fight.  They  only  keep  to  the 
shore  on  dull,  foggy  days.  When  it  is  bright  and  warm 
they  spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  water ;  doing  all  kinds 
of  fancy  tumbling,  jumping  out  of  the  water  like  so  many 
dolphins,  or  describing  beautiful  elliptical  curves,  as  they 
rise  three  or  four  feet  from  the  sea,  with  the  back  slightly 
arched,  and  the  fore  flippers  folded  back  against  the  sides 
while  the  hinder  limbs  are  extended  and  pressed  together 
straight  out  behind. 

The  fact  that  the  Bachelor  Seals  are  compelled  to  herd 
by  themselves,  frequently  miles  away  from  the  breeding 
grounds,  greatly  facilitates  the  arrangements  made  for 
their  slaughter.  Some  morning  early  in  June,  the  time 
when  the  skins  are  at  their  best,  a  company  of  natives 
will  run  along  the  beach;  and  having  turned  them  inland 
from  their  hauling  grounds  w411  drive  the  animals  at 
the  rate  of  a  half  a  mile  an  hour  to  the  place  of  slaughter. 
At  the  killing-grounds  the  herd  is  first  allowed  to  rest  and 
cool,  and  then  they  are  drawn  off  in  ''pods"  or  detach- 
ments of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  each,  and  despatched 
by  being  knocked  on  the  head  with  oaken  bludgeons.  The 
killing  gang  always  have  an  understanding  as  to  what 
grades  are  to  be  killed,  and  permit  the  others  to  escape  and 
make  their  way  back  to  the  sea.  In  the  days  before  the 
limitation  of  the  catch,  a  party  of  fortj^-five  natives  would 
drive,  kill  and  skin  upwards  of  72,000  Seals  in  four  weeks. 
Now  there  is  no  occasion  for  such  haste,  and  more  time 
can  be  given  to  the  careful  selection  of  the  animals  to  be 
killed. 


238  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

''The  female  Seals  are  protected  by  law  and  custom 
from  killing;  and  breeding  seals  are  never  disturbed.  The 
three-year-old,  and  large  two-year-old  bachelors  are  the 
animals  killed ;  the  younger,  and  older  animals  being  allow- 
ed to  return  to  the  sea;  the  former  to  be  the  basis  of  a 
future  killing  quota,  the  latter  to  replenish  the  stock  of 
breeding  males." 

"The  processes  of  driving  and  killing  are  simple  and 
humane.  The  fur  seal  is  well  adapted  to  land  travel  to  the 
extent  to  which  it  is  necessary  to  drive  the  animal.  The 
powerfully  developed  muscles  of  the  fore  limbs  on  which 
it  depends  in  swimming  are  the  ones  used  in  land  locomo- 
tion. Though  of  strong  instincts  the  fur  seal  is  not  an 
animal  of  high  intelligence,  or  susceptible  to  injury  by 
nervous  strain.  The  processes  of  land  travel  do  not  con- 
travene that  natural  law  which  decrees  that  the  fittest 
shall  survive." 

As  the  skins  will  spoil  in  a  few  hours  if  they  are  not 
flayed  at  once,  and  properly  salted,  they  are  taken  from 
the  field  to  the  salt-houses  as  quickly  as  possible;  there 
they  are  laid  out  flat,  one  skin  upon  the.  other,  in  bins  or 
on  benches,  salt  being  spread  thickly  over  the  pelt  side  of  the 
skin.  After  lying  in  the  salting  bins  for  two  weeks  the 
skins  are  taken  out  and  rolled  pelt  to  pelt,  in  bundles  of 
two  skins  each,  and  strongly  corded.  In  this  shape  they 
are  packed  in  casks,  containing  from  forty  to  fifty  skins 
each,  and  shipped  to  the  point  where  they  are  to  be  sold 
at  auction  in  December.  Before  being  offered  for  sale 
the  skins  are  sorted  according  to  the  following  clasvsifica- 
tion: 

Middlings  and  Smalls  4  to  5  years  old 

Smalls    4    ''       " 

Large  Pups    3     "       '' 

Middling  and  Small  Pups 2     ''       '' 

Extra  Small  and  Grey  Pups   1    year 


li 


The  average  price  for  raw  seal-skins  in  1888  was  78s. 
each,  and  the  figures,  showing  the  prices  obtained  at  the 
December  sale  in  1906,  prove  that  they  had  increased  three 
hundred  per  cent,  in  value  up  to  that  time.  There  was 
a  further  increase  of  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  during  the 
period  from  1906-1913. 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  239 

After  being  thus  sold  in  the  rough  state  the  salted 
skins  are  sent  to  the  dressers  by  the  purchasers,  and  there 
and  at  the  dyers  they  are  changed  by  various  processes 
into  the  beautiful  seal-skin  exhibited  by  the  furriers. 

First  the  strips  of  blubber  and  flesh  still  adhering 
to  the  skin  are  removed  with  a  blunt  knife,  then  the  ears 
are  cut  off,  and  the  skins  are  washed  in  warm  alkali  water ; 
next  they  are  stretched  on  hoops  and  dried  in  warm  rooms 
where  currents  of  hot  air  pass  over  them;  after  this  they 
are  soaked  in  water  so  the  hair  is  loosened  without  effect- 
ing the  underfur.  Then  the  skins  are  warmed  on  the  fur 
side,  and  the  top  hairs  removed  with  a  blunt  knife.  The 
skins,  which  now  have  nothing  but  the  fur  on  them  are 
then  rubbed  to  soften  the  leather,  shaved,  repaired,  and 
sent  to  the  dyer's. 

At  the  dyer's,  the  skins  are  limed  back  to  back,  with 
a  thick  layer  of  paper  over  the  paddle  holes  to  prevent 
the  dye  from  going  through  and  damaging  the  skin  by 
being  absorbed  by  the  pelt.  The  ground  color  is  then  trod- 
den in,  and  after  this  has  thoroughly  dried  the  necessary 
coats  of  the  top  color  are  applied  with  a  brush  or  by 
dipping.  When  the  dying  process  has  been  completed 
the  skins  are  scraped  and  shaved,  and  cleaned  in  a  revolv- 
ing drum  containing  saw  dust;  and  finally  are  machined 
to  remove  the  fine  water  hairs.  The  entire  process  by 
which  the  raw  hide  of  the  Sea  Bear  is  converted  into  the 
"sealskin"  of  commerce  takes  from  three  to  four  months, 
and  greatly  increases  the  value  of  the  skin. 

The  sea  migration  of  the  males  of  the  Pribilov  Island 
colonies  is  unknown.  The  females  and  the  young  of 
both  sexes  pass  out  through  the  Bering  Sea  into  the 
North  Pacific,  where  they  are  known  as  Victoria  or  North 
West  Coast  Seals  because  some  of  them  are  speared  on 
the  North  West  Coast  of  British  Columbia  by  the  natives, 
who  go  out  in  canoes  to  take  them.  Most  of  the  Victoria 
Seals  however  are  taken  in  deep  water  as  before  stated, 
and  the  United  States,  in  its  war  against  pelagic  sealing, 
has  declared  the  skins  of  the  Victoria  Seals  to  be  con- 
traband, and  to  prevent  their  introduction  into  the  country 
in  manufactured  garments  or  other  articles  has  found  it 
necessary  to  adopt  such  stringent  customs  regulations  that 
it   is   often   difficult   for  tourists,   not   familiar  with   the 


240  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

requirements  of  the  government,  to  get  their  own  American- 
made  garments  back  into  this  country  after  taking  them 
abroad.  There  need  be  no  trouble  on  this  score  however 
if  American  going  abroad  wdll  take  their  sealskin  gar- 
ments to  the  custom  house  at  the  port  of  departure  before 
leaving  and  have  them  registered,  receiving  at  the  same 
time  an  order  for  their  re-entry  into  this  country. 

Pelagic  sealing  is  carried  on  by  well-appointed 
schooners,  and  other  vessels.  When  the  Seals  are  sighted, 
swimming  or  sleeping  in  the  w^ater,  small  boats  are  lowered 
and  the  hunters  are  rowed  to  the  sealing-ground  by  the 
sailors.  The  percentage  killed  is  very  small,  for  in  a  great 
majority  of  cases  the  Seal  wall  take  alarm  and  dive  before 
the  hunter  can  get  within  range;  and  even  when  a  Seal  is 
shot  it  commences  to  sink  so  quickly  that  the  boat  has  to 
be  pulled  very  rapidly  up  to  the  carcass  if  it  is  to  be  gaffed 
and  pulled  abroad.  At  the  end  of  the  day's  hunt  the 
boats  return  to  the  vessel,  and  the  Seals  are  skinned  and 
the  pelts  salted  and  laid  away  in  the  hold. 

While  the  headquarters  of  the  Northern  Sea  Bears  are 
on  the  Pribilov  Islands,  these  animals  are  also  found  in 
other  parts  of  the  Bering  Sea ;  and  on  both  shores  of  the 
North  Pacific,  as  far  south  as  Victoria  on  the  American 
side,  and  the  island  of  Saghalien  on  the  other.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  Alaska,  Copper  Island,  Victoria,  Robben 
Island  and  Japan  Seals  are  all  species  of  the  same  genus; 
differing  in  quality,  color,  form  and  size,  according  to 
locality  and  sex,  but  having  the  same  disposition  and 
habits. 

"Victoria"  Seals,  being  the  females  of  the  same 
species,  are  of  course  much  smaller  than  Alaska  Seals,  and 
the  fur,  though  beautiful  to  look  at,  is  less  durable  than 
that  on  the  skins  of  bachelor  Seals ;  and  the  money  value 
of  the  skins,  figured  inch  for  inch,  is  about  one-third  less 
than  that  of  the  bachelor  skins  taken  on  the  Pribilov 
Islands. 

Copper  Island  Seals,  breed  on  the  Commander  Islands, 
about  two  hundred  miles  east  of  Kamschatka.  Their  habits 
are  identical  with  those  of  the  Alaska  Seals,  of  the  Pribilov 
Islands,  and  some  authorities  claim  that  they  are  the  same 
species  in  a  different  locality.  However  that  may  be 
although  some  of  the  Copper  Island  skins  are  very  fine, 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  241 

the  fur  of  these  animals  is  not  as  rich  as  that  on  the 
Alaska  Seals,  and  the  money  value  of  the  skins  is  con- 
siderably less.  The  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  two 
species  is  probably  due  to  climatic  influences.  The  general 
migration  of  this  species  is  along  the  east  coast  of  Japan. 
The  Alaska  Commercial  Company  for  years  held  a  lease 
from  the  Russian  government,  allowing  them  to  kill  30,000 
Seals,  annually,  on  the  Commander  Islands. 

The  fur  of  the  skins  taken  from  the  Sea  Bears  found 
on  Robben's  Island,  south  of  Kamschatka,  is  of  poorer 
quality  than  that  of  the  Copper  Island  skins;  and  con- 
sequently of  much  lower  value.  The  Japanese  Sea  Bear 
has  the  shortest,  and  thinnest  fur,  of  all  Northern  Fur 
Seals;  and  the  skins  of  this  species  are  used  principally 
for  the  manufacture  of  caps,  and  other  small  articles,  where 
a  short  fur  is  not  objectionable. 

Northern  Sea  Bears  show  considerable  variation  in 
color,  both  in  the  underfur .  and  the  top  hair.  In  the 
adult  males  the  general  color  of  the  upper  parts,  with 
the  exception  of  the  shoulders  which  are  a  decided  grey, 
is  nearly  black,  with  a  more  or  less  marked  grey  or  reddish 
grizzle.  The  sides  of  the  nose  and  lips  are  brownish,  the 
breast  is  brownish  orange,  and  the  limbs  and  under  parts, 
are  reddish  brown.  The  females,  and  the  bachelors,  are 
lighter  in  color;  being  uniformly  grey  above,  with  under 
parts  of  brownish  or  rufous  color.  In  both  sexes  there  are 
individual  variations  due  to  the  varying  proportion  of 
grey  hair.  The  color  of  the  Copper  Island  Seals  is  lighter 
than  that  of  the  Alaska  Seals,  being  a  dark  brown.  The 
Robben  Island  Seals  are  yellower  and  coarser-haired  than 
either  of  the  above,  and  their  short  even  under-fur  is  red. 
The  skins  taken  on  the  Japanese  Islands  are  mostly  those 
of  female  Seals,  with  yellow  necks  and  cheeks.  The  males 
are  called  bachelors  from  the  time  they  cease  to  be  year- 
lings until  they  are  six  years  old,  and  from  that  time  until 
they  become  fully  materialized  bulls  at  seven  years  of  age 
they  are  classed  as  half  bulls.  All  Seals  under  two  years 
are  yearlings.  At  two  years  the  females  are  designat^H  ajs 
virgins,  and  at  three  years  as  cows.  The  males  when  undis- 
turbed will  live  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  and  the 
females  nine  or  ten  years. 


242  Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 

The  difference  in  the  dimensions  of  the  sexes  is  greater 
in  the  Northern  Sea  Bears  than  in  any  other  species  of 
Eared  Seals.  The  old  bulls  weigh  from  700  to  800  pounds, 
and  measure  from  seven  to  eight  feet ;  while  the  full-grown 
cow  only  weighs  from  80  to  100  pounds,  and  measures 
about  four  feet  in  length,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  in  girth. 
The  finest  fur  is  obtained  from  the  skins  of  the  three- 
year-old  Bachelor  Seals,  which  weigh  about  100  pounds, 
and  measure  from  four  to  five  feet  in  length,  and  a  little 
over  two  and  a  half  feet  in  girth.  As  the  animals  grow 
older  the  fur  becomes  longer  and  loses  in  density  until 
in  the  old  bulls  it  is  so  long  and  thin  that  they  are  some- 
times called  wigs. 

All  the  Northern  Sea  Bears  have  a  short  face,  wdth 
a  sharp  profile ;  but  the  other  species  have  a  slenderer  head 
than  those  frequenting  the  Pribilov  Islands;  this  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  Copper  Island  Seals. 

The  cows  of  this  group  have  but  one  note,  a  hollow^ 
prolonged,  bla-a-ting  call;  but  the  males  utter  four  dis- 
tinct notes — a  loud,  long,  hoarse  roar,  a  low  gurgling  grow^l 
or  chuckle,  a  sibilant  piping  whistle  and  a  kind  of  spitting 
sound.  Mr.  Elliott  saj^s:  ''The  sound  arising  from  the 
great  breeding  grounds  of  the  Fur  Seals,  where  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  angry  bulls  are  roaring,  chuckling, 
piping;  and  multitudes  of  mother  Seals  are  calling  in 
blaating  tones  to  their  young,  w^ho  in  turn  respond  in- 
cessantly is  simply  indescribable,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  can  be  heard  five  or  six  miles  away ;  often  warn- 
ing vessels  that  are  approaching  the  islands  in  thick,  foggy 
weather,  of  the  positive,  though  unseen  proximity  of  land. 
Night  and  day,  throughout  the  season,  the  din  of  the 
rookeries  is  steady  and  constant." 

Both  Sexes  of  these  animals  have  a  marked  indiffer- 
ence for  their  offspring,  cases  being  on  record  w^here  a 
cub  has  been  killed  before  the  eyes  of  its  mother  without 
causing  the  parent  to  show  the  least  concern. 

The  hauling  grounds  of  the  bachelors  are  ahvays  on 
the  beaches,  but  the  rookeries  of  the  bulls  are  on  the  rock- 
covered  slopes  back  from  the  shore. 

All  Northern  Sea  Bears  are  impatient  of  heat.  A 
temperature  of  45°  is  unpleasant  to^  them,  and  when  the 
mercurv  in  the  thermometer  rises  to  55°  or  higher  they 


I 
I 


Fur  Seals  or  Sea  Bears.  243 

suffer  great  inconvenience ;  and  the  rookeries,  at  such  times, 
present  a  peculiar  appearance,  because  the  distressed  Sea 
Bears  spread  out  in  every  conceivable  position  their  bodies 
can  assume  and  try  to  obtain  relief  by  briskly  fanning 
themselves  with  their  hind  flippers,  w^hile  they  hold  the 
front  flippers  aloft  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  ventilator  for 
the  air  to  pass  through. 

In  their  native  element  these  animals  are  as  grace- 
ful and  quick  in  their  movements  as  they  are  slow  and 
clumsy  on  the  land.  In  commenting  on  this  fact,  Mr.  El- 
liott says:  "Sea  Bears  of  all  ages  swim  with  great 
rapidity,  and  may  be  fairly  said  to  dart  along  under  the 
water,  with  the  velocity  of  a  bird  on  the  wing.  The  fore 
feet  can  be  seen  to  work,  feathering  forward,  and  sweeping 
back  flatly  opposed  to  the  water,  with  great  rapidity  and 
energy,  and  are  evidently  the  sole  propelling  power;  for 
if  the  long,  flexible  hind  limbs  have  any  propelling  power, 
or  are  used  otherwise  than  as  a  steering  medium,  my  eye 
has  never  been  quick  enough  to  detect  it." 

A  census  of  the  seal  herds  taken  by  the  agents  of  the 
Government,  showed  that  there  were  on  the  Pribilof 
Islands  in  1913,  1,403  active  bulls  with  harems,  364  idle 
and  young  bulls,  47,000  one,  tw^o,  three  and  four-year-old 
pups,  92,269  young  pups,  with  an  equal  number  of  breed- 
ing cows,  and  35,000  one  and  two-year-old  cows. 

The  number  of  seal  skins  shipped  from  the  islands  in 
1912  to  C.  M.  Lampson  and  Company  in  London  and  sold 
for  the  Government  was  3,764.  Under  the  leasing  system, 
which  prevailed  prior  to  1910,  the  Government  would  have 
received  $38,589.25  for  these  skins,  instead  of  the  $130,- 
640.57,  which  represented  the  net  proceeds  of  the  sale. 


244 


Carnivora  Pinnipedia. 


Flippers  of  the  True  Seal. 


Desman.  245 


INSECTIVORA. 

Insectivora  are  small  mammals  with  carnivorous  ten- 
dencies, that  are  compelled  by  their  inferior  size  to  depend 
principally  upon  insects  for  their  supply  of  food.  On 
account  of  differences  in  the  development  of  their  incisor 
teeth,  these  animals  were  distributed  by  Linnaeus  among 
several  orders,  but  Cuvier  in  1816  grouped  them  together 
in  one  independent  order,  all  the  species  of  which  have 
teeth  encased  in  enamel,  and  grinders  studded  with  coni- 
cal points,  which  distinguishes  them  from  the  Mdno- 
tremes,  while  the  peculiar  clondyles  of  their  jaws  separate 
them  from  the  rodents,  and  their  limbs  distinguish  them 
from  the  bats.  As  Dr.  Theodore  Gill  says,  the  various 
types  of  Insectivores  differ  so  much  in  external  charac- 
teristics that  it  is  only  possible  to  give  general  characters 
to  the  order.  They  commonly  lead  a  nocturnal  and  sub- 
terranean existence,  and  in  cold  climates  many  of  them 
pass  the  winter  in  a  lethargic  state.  Their  feet  and  legs 
are  generally  short,  and  their  motions  are  feeble ;  in 
walking  they  place  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the 
ground.  Some  of  them  have  long  incisors  in  front,  fol- 
lowed by  other  incisors  and  canines  shorter  than  the 
molars.  Others  have  large  separated  canines,  between 
which  are  placed  small  incisors.  Some  species  are  covered 
with  robust  spines,  while  others  have  the  finest  and  softest 
fur;  some  have  barrel-shaped  bodies,  minute  eyes,  and 
wide,  sharply-clawed  fore-feet  fitted  for  digging;  some 
are  ground  animals  with  mouse-like  forms,  and  still  others 
are  squirrel-like  and  arboreal.  Formerly  the  naturalists 
called  all  the  round,  digging  Insectivores  Talpidae;  and 
those  with  mouse-like  forms  Soricidae,  but  now  they  are 
divided  according  to  structural  characteristics,  into  a 
dozen  different  families,  the  most  important  of  which  as 
a  fur  producer  is  the  Talpidae,  of  which  the  Common  Mole 
(Talpa-europaea)  is  the  principal  representative. 

The  European  Mole  is  about  four  inches  long,  has 
extremely  small  eyes  that  are  almost  hidden  by  the  thick 
fur  which  prevents  the  dirt  from  entering  them  when 
the  animal  is  burrowing.     It  has  no  external  ears,  but 


246  Insectivora. 

the  openings  can  be  distinguished  just  above  the  fore- 
feet; the  long  naked  snout  is  furnished  with  a  few  black 
whiskers,  and  the  one  inch  tail  has  a  scanty  covering  of 
bushy  hair,  which  is  most  abundant  at  the  tip.  The  fur 
on  the  body  is  short  and  very  fine  and  silky,  the  color 
generally  being  a  peculiar  shade  of  lustrous  brownish 
grey  that  has  become  very  popular  with  fur  wearers. 

Moles  are  entirely  insectivorous  and  usually  feed  early 
in  the  morning  and  again  in  the  evening,  boring  long 
tunnels  in  the  ground  in  pursuit  of  their  prey.     Their 
nests  are  made  by  throwing  up  the  earth  in  hillocks  with 
their  fore  feet,  which  are  very  large  and  furnished  with 
five   strong,   sharp   claws   that  turn   outward.     In  some 
parts  of  England  Mole  catching  is  a  regular  business; 
they  are  sometimes  captured  with  spring  traps,  but  can 
be  easily  taken,  before  eight  in  the  morning  or  after  six 
o'clock  in  the  evening,  by  placing  a  spade  a  few  inches,^ 
below  where  they  are  working  and  catching  them  with  ■ 
the  hand ;  as  the  long  passages  they  make  under  the  earth 
are  clearly  visible  on  the  surface  this  is  easily  accom- 
plished.   In  severe  frosts  the  moles  sometimes  seek  shelter 
in  the  hedges,  but  they  never  hibernate,  but  work  all 
through  the  winter.     The  inconvenience  they  cause  by  ^ 
spoiling  walks  and  uprooting  plants,  is  more  than  com-  fl 
pensated  by  the  service  they  render  in  draining  the  sub- 
soil of  meadows,  and  in  destroying  the  larvae  of  insects  ^ 
that  would  become  a  pest.  ^M 

Moles  have  well  developed  senses  of  smell  and  hearing  * 
and  are  good  swimmers,  and  are  found  in  the  hill  country  ^> 
as  well  as  on  the  bottom  lands.  ^M 

Bell,  in  his  History  of  British  Quadrupeds,   gives  an 
interesting  description  of  the  way  in  which  each  Mole^^ 
confines  itself  to  its  own  district  or  encampment.     He^^l 
says :  ''Within  its  limits,  or  at  least  in  immediate  commu- 
nication with  this  district,  all  the  labors  of  the  animal      : 
are  pursued.     It  consists  of  the  habitation  or  fortress,  ^B 
from  which  extends  the  high  road  by  which  the  animal 
reaches  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  encampment,  and 
of  various  galleries  or  excavations  opening  into  this  road, 
which  it  is  continually  extending  in  search  of  food,  and 
which  constitute,  in  fact,  its  hunting-ground.     The  fort- 
ress is  formed  under  a  large  hillock,  which  is  always 


Mole. 


247 


raised  in  a  situation  of  safety  and  protection,  either 
under  a  bank,  against  the  foundation  of  a  wall,  at  a  root 
of  a  tree,  or  in  some  similar  locality.  The  earth,  of  which 
the  dome  covering  of  this  curious  habitation  is  composed, 
is  rendered  exceedingly  strong  and  solid  by  being  pressed 
and  beaten  by  the  mole  in  forming  it.  It  contains  a 
circular  gallery  within  the  base  which  communicates 
w^ith  a  smaller  one  above  by  five  nearly  equidistant  pas- 
sages ;  and  the  domicile  or  chamber  is  placed  within  the 


Star  Mole. 


Common  Mole. 


Garden  Mole. 


lower  and  beneath  the  upper  circular  gallery,  to  which 
last  it  has  access  by  three  similar  passages.  From  the 
chamber  extends  another  road,  the  direction  of  which 
is  at  first  downwards  for  several  inches;  it  then  rises 
again  to  open  into  the  high  road  of  the  encampment. 
From  the  external  circular  gallery  open  about  nine  other 
passages  the  orifices  of  which  are  never  formed  opposite 
to  those  which  connect  the  outer  with  the  inner  and 
upper  gallery;  these  extend  to  a  greater  or  less  distance, 
and  according  to  De  Vaux  return,  each  taking  an 
irregular  semicircular  route,  and  opening  into  the  high 
road  at  various  distances  from  the  fortress.  Such  is  a 
very  hasty  description  of  this  most  singular  structure; 
and  nothing  surely  can  be  imagined  more  admirably  calcu- 
lated to  ensure  the  security  or  the  retreat  of  the  inhab- 
itant than  such  an  arrangement  of  internal  routes  of 
communication    as    this.      The    chamber    communicating 


248  Insectivora. 

beneath  directly  with  the  road,  and  above  with  the  upper 
gallery — this  with  the  lower  five  passages,  and  the 
latter  again  with  the  road  by  no  less  than  nine — exhibit 
altogether  a  complication  of  architecture  which  may  rival 
the  most  celebrated  erections  of  the  beaver. 

"But  the  labors  of  the  mole  are  not  confined  to  the 
excavations  already  mentioned.  In  lands  newly  sown  in 
summer  with  barley  or  turnips,  the  surface  of  which  is 
consequently  light  and  yielding,  after  a  moderate  rain 
has  brought  the  earth-worms  to  the  surface,  the  mole 
follows  them  and  pursues  its  chase  along  the  super- 
ficial layer  of  the  soil,  digging  a  shallow  continuous 
trench,  in  which  work  it  advances  with  great  rapidity. 
This  is  done  by  merely  forcing  its  way  through  the  light 
soil,  and  thus  lifting  it  up ;  and  mole-catchers  take  advan- 
tage of  these  times  to  steal  softly  upon  them,  and  throw 
them  oi;it  of  the  ground  with  their  paddle.  But  great 
quickness  is  necessary  in  doing  this,  for  the  mole  will 
bury  itself  again  so  rapidly  as  often  to  escape,  even  when 
fairly  thrown  on  to  the  surface.  We  have  on  more  than 
one  occasion  seen  a  mole  making  so  shallow  a  run  that 
the  fine  soil  has  fallen  away  on  each  side,  leaving  the 
creature's  back  exposed  to  view.  It  is  said  that  tEe 
gravid  female,  to  whom  the  usual  excavations  in  the 
subterranean  alleys  would  be  too  laborious,  limits  herself 
principally  to  this  lighter  toil." 


Desman. 


249 


THE  DESMAN. 

The  Desman  (Myogale-moschata),  sometimes  called  the 
Russian  Muskrat,  and  also  the  Wuychuchol  or  Musk  Shrew, 
although  it  approaches  nearer  to  the  Mole  in  appearance 
than  the  Shrews,  has  comparatively  narrow  feet  that  are 
not  specially  fitted  for  digging  like  those  of  the  great 
burrowing  Insectivores.  It  is  a  peculiar  looking  little 
animal  about  ten  inches  long,  exclusive  of  the  six  inch 
tail.  It  has  no  external  ears  and  the  eyes  are  very  small. 
The  muzzle  is  elongated  into  a  small  four  inch  proboscis 


Desman. 

which  is  constantly  in  motion.  The  tail  is  scaly  and 
flattened  at  the  sides,  and  makes  a  powerful  swimming 
organ,  and  the  feet  have  the  five  toes  fully  webbed  so 
the  animal  is  entirely  aquatic.  It  lives  in  burrows  in 
the  banks  of  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  its  habitat,  the 
entrances  to  which  are  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water. 
The  Desman  feeds  on  insects,  leeches  and  similar  food, 
which  it  finds  in  the  mud  and  beneath  the  stones.  There 
are  four  genera  of  the  family  found  in  different  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  one  in  South  America ;  but  the  type 
representative  of  the  family  Myogalidae  is  the  species 
described  in  this  article,  which  is  confined  to  southeastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  Like  the  otter  and  other 
aquatic  animals,  the  Desman  has  an  outer  coat  of  long 
stiff  hairs  to  protect  the  fine,  dense,  soft,  short  under-fur, 
which  is  purplish  brown  on  the  back,  and  silvery  white 
on  the  belly,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  for  trimmings, 
glove  tops  and  similar  purposes. 


250  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupials. 


MARSUPIALS. 

''Marsupials  are  peculiar  in  the  premature  production 
of  their  young,  whose  state  of  development  at  birth  is 
hardly  equal  to  that  of  the  ordinary  foetus  a  few  days 
after  conception.  Incapable  of  motion  and  hardly  exhibit- 
ing the  germs  of  limbs,  or  other  external  organs,  these 
diminutive  beings  attach  themselves  to  the  mammae  of  the 
mother,  and  remain  fixed  there  until  they  have  acquired 
a  degree  of  development  similar  to  that  in  which  other 
mammals  are  born.  The  skin  of  the  abdomen  is  so  arranged 
as  to  form  a  pouch,  in  which  the  imperfect  little  animals 
are  carried  about,  as  in  a  second  uterus;  and  to  which, 
long  after  they  are  able  to  walk,  they  fly  for  shelter  upon 
the  approach  of  danger.  Two  particular  bones,  attached 
to  the  pubis,  and  interposed  between  the  muscles  of  the 
abdomen,  support  the  pouch.  These  bones  are  also  found 
in  the  males,  and  even  in  those  species  in  which  the  folds 
that  form  the  pouch  are  scarcely  visable. " 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Marsupials  that  in  spite 
of  a  general  resemblance  in  appearance,  the  species  vary 
so  much  in  the  formation  of  their  teeth,  and  feet,  and 
organs  of  digestion,  that  they  really  should  be  separated 
into  several  special  orders.  Cuvier  says :  * '  They  carry  us 
by  insensible  gradations,  from  the  Carnivora  to  the  Roden- 
tia;  and  actually  form  a  distinct  class,  parallel  to  that  of 
Quadrumana  or  Primates,  and  dissolvable  into  similar 
orders. ' ' 

R.  Ramsey  Wright,  in  an  article  written  for  the  River- 
side Natural  History,  says: 

"A  glance  at  the  map  of  the  world  will  show  the  very 
curious  distribution  of  existing  Marsupials.  All  the 
families  but  one  have  their  home  in  the  Australian 
region;  that  is,  either  on  the  continent  of  Australia,  the 
Island  of  Tasmania  to  the  south,  Papua  or  New  Guinea  to 
the  north,  Celebes  to  the  northwest,  or,  finally,  on  the 
small  islands  which  lie  to  the  east  and  west  of  Papua. 
The  remaining  family  (the  opossums)  is  confined  to 
South  America  and  the  southern  parts  of  North  America. 
The  characteristic  difference  between  the  Australian  and 


Marsupialia.  251 

American  Marsupials  extends  also  to  the  fossil  forms 
found  in  these  regions,  for  the  earliest  marsupial  remains 
which  have  been  detected  in  both  countries  are  distinctly- 
allied  to  the  existing  Fauna. 

''In  none  of  the  orders  of  the  higher  mammalia  do  we 
find  such  wide  limits  as  to  the  size  of  the  body,  for  the 
order  includes  kangaroos  as  tall  as  a  man,  and  little 
mouse-like  creatures  of  dwarf  proportions.  The  fur  is 
in  most  cases  long  and  soft,  its  coloring  rarely  very 
marked,  and  often  very  sober.  In  the  structure  of  the 
skeleton  the  Marsupials  are  rather  allied  to  the  higher 
mammals  than  to  the  Monotremes.  The  lower  jaw  is 
always  characterized  by  the  inflection  of  the  angle,  a 
peculiarity  which  has  assisted  in  the  recognition  of  the 
marsupial  character  of  the  earliest  fossil  mammalian 
remains,  which  almost  invariably  consist  of  lower  jaws. 
The  number  of  bones  in  the  vertebral  column  is  remark- 
ably constant,  except  in  the  caudal  region,  the  tail  being 
more  or  less  rudimentary  in  the  Wombat  and  Koala,  but 
w^ell  developed  in  the  Kangaroos  and  Phalangers,  serv- 
ing the  former  species  as  a  sort  of  fifth  leg,  and  being 
used  by  the  latter  in  climbing. 

"The  relative  length  of  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  is 
very  different  in  the  different  groups,  the  difference  being 
especially  striking  in  the  kangaroos,  where  the  fore  limbs 
are  particularly  short.  The  bones  of  the  fore  arm  are 
distinct,  and  allow  of  a  rotary  motion,  the  one  around 
the  other;  the  same  is  true  of  the  bones  of  the  hind  legs 
in  the  climbing  forms,  but  in  the  leaping  forms  such 
rotation  is  not  possible.  Of  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet, 
the  inner  one  is  sometimes  opposable  after  the  fashion 
of  a  thumb.  This  inner  toe  may  be  absent,  or  the  second 
and  third  next  it  may  also  disappear  or  be  much  reduced. 

' '  The  brain  of  the  marsupials  is  small,  and  consequently 
the  cavity  of  the  skull  is  relatively  small  as  compared 
with  the  bones  of  the  face.  The  surface  of  the  brain  is 
almost  destitute  of  convolutions,  and  the  two  halves  of 
the  brain  are  less  intimately  joined  by  the  corpus  callo- 
sum  than  is  the  case  in  the  higher  animals. 

In  the  number  and  arrangement  of  their  teeth  the 
different  families  of  Marsupials  differ  from  one  another 
more  than   those  of  the  higher  orders.     The  vegetable 


252  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupiaus. 

feeders  have  teeth  with  constantly  growing  roots  like 
those  of  the  Rabbits.  In  the  insect  and  flesh  eating 
pouched  mammals  the  roots  of  the  teeth  do  not  increase; 
and  the  canine  teeth,  which  are  well  developed  in  the 
carnivorous  forms  of  the  order,  are  absent  or  very  much 
reduced  in  the  vegetable  feeders.  It  is  also  worthy  of 
notice  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Wombat,  most  of 
the  Marsupials  have  an  unequal  number  of  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  The  premolars  are  double 
fanged  and  are  usually  t  on  each  side.  The  com- 
monest formula  for  the  true  grinders  is  I,  but  in  the 
Banded  Ant  Eater  it  rises  to  t  and  in  the  flying  Pha- 
langer  falls  to  t.  In  the  Kangaroos  the  mode  of  suc- 
cession of  the  teeth  is  singular,  the  hinder  ones  eventu- 
ally replacing  in  function  those  in  front  as  the  latter 
become  worn  away.  » 

''The  stomach  also  varies  in  shape  with  the  food,  being 
simply  oval  or  rounded  in  the  carnivorous  or  insectivorous 
forms,  while  in  the  herbivorous  kangaroos  it  is  converted 
into  a  gut-like  tube,/ sacculated  like  the  colon,  sometimes 
as  long  as  the  body,  and  occasionally  provided,  near  the 
entrance  of  the  gullet,  with  two  blind  sack-like  append- 
ages. 

''The  most  preposterous  theories  as  to  the  mode  of 
development  of  the  kangaroos  were  at  one  time  credited 
by  the  Australian  colonists  and  even  by  naturalists.  It 
was  thought  that  the  young  were  formed  at  the  end  of 
the  teat,  and  indeed  the  intimate  connection  which 
exists  between  the  teat  and  the  young  readily  explains 
such  a  popular  conception.  Now,  however,  ripe  embryos 
have  been  discovered  in  the  uteri,  and  such  have  also 
been  observed  a  few  hours  after  their  fixation  to  the 
teats.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  trans- 
ference of  the  young  from  the  womb  to  the  pouch  is 
effected  by  the  mother's  lips,  the  fore-paws  being  only 
employed  to  hold  the  lips  of  the  pouch  widely  open. 
Both  transference  and  fixation  are,  however,  difficult  to 
observe,  for  the  little  embryo,  hardly  an  inch  long,  is 
first  concealed  by  the  lips  of  the  mother,  and  then  more 
effectually  so  by  the  insertion  of  the  mother's  head  into 
the  pouch.  Even  in  the  largest  member  of  the  family, 
the  giant  kangaroo,  the  young,  when  born,  are  no  larger 


Marsupialia.  253 

than  a  newly-born  mouse.  It  is  interesting  to  compare  the 
degree  of  development  of  the  hind  and  fore  legs  at  this 
stage.  While  in  the  fore  feet  the  five  fingers  are  distinctly 
formed,  even  to  the  tips  of  the  claws,  the  hind  feet  are 
more  like  short  fins  slightly  notched  into  three  lobes,  the 
inner  of  which  is  again  perceptibly  divided,  in  correspond- 
ence with  the  structure  of  the  adult  foot.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  features  about  the  young  kangaroo  is  the 
largely-developed  mouth  and  tongue;  by  their  aid  the 
little  creature  is  able  to  grasp  the  teat  firmly,  and  in 
fact  the  orifice  of  the  mouth  may  grow  smaller  after  the 
teat  has  once  been  firmly  secured  in  it.  The  milk  is 
,  injected  into  the  gullet  of  the  young,  passing  on  each 
«ide  of  the  upper  end  of  the  windpipe  which  is  carried 
as  far  up  as  the  hinder  part  of  the  nasal  cavity.  In 
this  way  the  little  creatures  may  breathe,  and  be  fed  at 
the  same  time,  without  danger  of  choking.  The  injec- 
tion of  the  milk  is  effected  by  a  specially  modified  part, 
the  cremaster,  of  one  of  the  superficial  abdominal  mus- 
cles. The  epipubic,  or  so-called  marsupial  bones,  serve 
as  a  sort  of  pulley  by  which  tbe  cremaster  muscles  are 
enabled  more  effectively  to  compress  the  milk  glands. 

''The  duration  of  the  pouch-life  of  the  young  varies 
with  the  species.  The  Kangaroo,  according  to  Owen, 
suckles  her  young  for  eight  months.  During  this  period 
the  liind  legs  and  tail  assume  a  great  part  of  their  adult 
proportions;  the  muzzle  elongates,  the  external  ears  and 
eyelids  are  completed,  and  the  hair  begins  to  develop 
about  the  sixth  month ;  at  the  eighth  the  young  kangaroo 
may  be  seen  frequently  to  protrude  its  head  from  the 
mouth  of  the  pouch,  and  to  crop  the  grass  at  the  same 
time  that  the  mother  is  browsing.  Having  thus  acquired 
additional  strength  it  quits  the  pouch,  and  hops  at  first 
with  a  feeble  and  vacillating  gait,  but  continues  to 
return  to  the  pouch  for  occasional  shelter  and  supplies 
of  food  till  it  has  attained  the  weight  of  ten  pounds; 
after  this  it  will  occasionally  insert  its  head  for  the  pur- 
pose of  sucking,  notwithstanding  another  foetus  may  have 
been  deposited  in  the  pouch,  for  the  latter  attaches  itself 
to  a  dift'erent  nipple  from  the  one  which  had  been  used 
'by  its  predecessor. 


254  Pouched  :Mammals  or  ^Marsupials, 


THE  KANGAROO. 

Nearly  all  the  twenty-three  species  of  Kangaroos  are  re- 
stricted to  Australia,  although  a  few  are  found  in  New 
Guinea.  The  family,  which  embraces  the  Kangaroos  and 
their  allies  the  Wallabies,  includes  not  only  the  largest 
forms,  but  also  has  the  greatest  number  of  genera  and 
species,  and  the  widest  geographical  range.  It  owes  its 
name,  Macropodidae,  to  the  difference  between  the  size  of 
the  fore  and  hind  legs.  Kangaroos  are  entirely  herbivorous, 
and  the  lower  incisors,  which  are  elongated,  play  upon  eaclj 
other  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  crop  the 
grass.  Of  the  upper  incisors,  the  foremost  are  the  largest, 
and  occasionally  the  premolars  are  strikingly  large.  In 
contrast  to  the  other  Marsupials  the  members  of  this  family 
generally  have  well  developed  eyelashes.  The  tail  of  the 
Kangaroo  is  very  thick  and  strong,  so  that  the  animal  can 
use  it  as  a  fifth  leg  in  standing  upright  or  moving  slowly. 
The  hind  legs  are  very  strong,  and  the  fore  limbs  are  short, 
which  enables  them  to  progress  and  get  over  the  ground, 
very  swiftly  and  gracefully  by  a  series  of  bounds. 

Although  very  powerful  animals,  all  species  of  Kangaroos 
are  exceedingly  timid,  and  in  captivity  have  been  known  to 
die  of  sheer  fright.  In  freedom,  when  alarmed  by  any  un- 
familiar sight,  sound  or  smell,  they  will  immediately  raise 
upon  their  tail  and  hind  limbs  as  upon  a  tripod.  Mr.  R. 
Ramsey  Wright  says  that  when  resting,  one  male  of  the 
family  will  support  himself  on  the  tail  and  ankle  bones, 
while  the  others  lie  about  or  browse  at  their  ease,  commonly 
applying  their  fore-feet  to  the  ground  till  they  receive  a 
danger  signal  from  their  sentinel.  Some  species  of  Kan- 
garoos are  the  size  of  a  small  rabbit,  while  others  are  as 
large  as  sheep,  the  head  always  being  small  compared  to  the 
rest  of  the  body  and  tapering  tow^ards  the  muzzle.  The 
fore-paws  each  have  five  digits  armed  with  a  strong  curved 
claw.  The  hind  foot  is  extremely  long,  narrow  and  without 
the  first  toe,  consisting  mainly  of  one  very  large  and  strong 
toe  corresponding  to  the  fourth  of  the  human  foot,  and  end- 
ing in  a  strong  curved  and  pointed  claw ;  close  to  the  oute"r 
side  of  this  lies  a  small  fifth  digit,  and  to  the  inner  side,  two 


Kangaroo. 


255 


exceptionally  slender  toes  bound  together  almost  to  the 
extremity  in  a  common  integument. 


Giant  Kangaroo. 

The  Common  or  Grey  Kangaroo  (Macropus  gigantius) 
is  the  best  known  species.  It  is  also  the  largest,  an  old  male 
Grey  Kangaroo  when  erect  on  his  hind  feet  and  tail  often 
standing  seven  feet  high,  the  females  being  about  one-third 
shorter  than  the  males.  The  color  of  this  species  is  usually 
a  dull  yellowish  brown,  pale  on  the  under  parts  and  darker 
on  the  tail,  but  while  the  exact  shade  varies  greatly  in  dif- 
ferent individuals,  generally  the  color  has  a  distinctly  grey- 
ish cast.  This  species  is  the  most  numerous  as  well  as  the 
most  common  of  its  genus,  and  is  also  known  as  the  Boomer, 
Forester,  and  Old  Man  Kangaroo.  Although  their  num- 
bers have  diminished  considerably  in  the  proximity  of  the 
towns,  on  the  other  hand  they  have  increased  on  the  sweet 
pasture  of  the  newly  settled  districts,  so  that  on  the  whole 
Kangaroos  do  not  seem  to  have  decreased  much  since  they 
were  discovered  by  Cook  off  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales 
over  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago,  although  they  have 
been  steadily  driven  further  inland  by  the  persistent  hunt- 
ing of  the  colonists  and  natives. 


256  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupials. 

''The  natives  generally  hunt  the  Kangaroo  by  forming  a 
circle  around  the  herd  and  killing  them  with  clubs.  By  the 
colonists  they  are  generally  driven  toward  a  particular  spot 
where  the  sportsmen  have  been  stationed  before  hand  after 
the  fashion  of  a  bateau,  but  they  are  also  stalked,  and  occa- 
sionally hunted  by  dogs.  In  spite  of  their  timidity  Kan- 
garoos are  enemies  not  to  be  despised  when  brought  to 
bay,  and  a  blow  from  the  powerful  tail  or  hind  legs  is 
sufficient  to  cause  serious  injuries,  and  the  dogs  are  often 
torn  open  by  the  strong  claws  of  the  hind  feet. " 

Mr.  W.  H.  Blundell,  in  a  letter  to  "Nature,"  a  number 
of  years  ago  wrote : 

"The  great  plains  and  deserts  over  which  these  marsup- 
ials wander  in  search  of  food  afford  an  exceedingly  precar- 
ious supply  of  pasture,  in  consequence  of  drought  and  bush 
fires,  which  not  infrequently  follow  a  super-abundance  of 
herbage.  These  animals  by  means  of  their  procumbent  teeth, 
which  they  make  use  of  as  shears,  are  enabled  to  cut  off 
any  green  root  or  half  buried  remains  spared  by  a  scorching 
sun,  and  obtain  nourishment  where  any  grass  feeding  pla- 
cental animal  would  certainly  starve.  It  is  in  consequence, 
I  believe,  of  the  power  which  is  by  this  means  given  these 
animals,  that  in  the  great  pastural  districts  in  New  South 
Wales  and  Queensland,  it  has  been  found  that  they  are  far 
more  destructive  of  food  than  any  stock  that  can  be  put  upon 
the  land.  And  in  places  where  Wallabys  and  Paddy  Melons, 
are  exceedingly  numerous,  it  is  noticed  that  the  native 
grasses  in  the  particular  localities  which  they  frequent  be- 
come completely  destroyed,  and  that  such  places  remain 
entirely  ungrassed  until  fresh  seed  is  scattered  over  them 
by  the  winds. 

Brehm  in  describing  the  locomotion  of  Kangeroos 
says:  "the  fore  limbs  are  tightly  clasped  against  the 
chest  and  the  tail  stretched  backwards,  while  the  powerful 
thigh  muscles  are  caused  suddenly  to  straighten  the 
joints,  by  which  action  the  body  flies  through  the  air  in 
a  low  curve.  In  ordinary  locomotion  the  leaps  are  only 
nine  or  ten  feet,  but  when  alarmed  the  animal  doubles 
or  even  trebles  its  exertion.  The  right  foot  seems  to  be 
employed  more  than  the  left  and  is  held  a  little  in  front 
of  it.  With  each  leap  the  tail  swings  upward  and  down- 
ward, but  it  is  not  employed  in  changing  the  course  of 
the  animal,  for  this  is  always  effected  by  two  or  three  short 
leaps.  The  fore  limbs  are  never  lowered  in  locomotion,  and 
in  fact,  only  the  toes  of  the  hind  limbs  touch  the  ground.  In 


Kangaroo  and  Its  Allies.  257 

open  ground  it  is  more  than  a  match  in  speed  for  the  swift- 
est dog,  and  can  keep  up  its  swiftest  pace  for  hours.  When 
there  is  any  cover  it  has  immeasurably  the  advantage  by 
clearing  clumps  or  shrubs  six  or  eight  feet  high ;  on  uneven 
ground,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  at  a  disadvantage,  especially 
when  going  down  hill,  for  it  is  liable  to  slip  and  roll  over  on 
reaching  a  sloping  surface. ' ' 

Kangaroo  flesh  is  said  to  be  excellent  eating,  but  the 
Giant  Kangaroo  is  hunted  principally  for  its  skin  which 
is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes.  Only  the 
fur  of  the  younger  animals  is  dense  enough  to  make 
the  skins  of  value  to  the  furriers. 

The  Red  Kangaroo  (Macropus-rufus)  is  next  in  size  to 
the  Giant  Kangaroo,  but,  as  its  name  indicates,  the  fur  has 
a  reddish  hue,  and  as  it  is  also  coarse  and  woolly,  it  is  not 
sought  by  furriers,  the  skin  is  also  too  harsh  for  leather. 

The  Blue  Kangaroo  (Macropus-erubescens)  is  still 
smaller  than  the  Red  species,  but  has  a  long  soft  fur,  the 
under  coat  of  which  is  pinkish  or  light  blue  in  color.  The 
pelt  is  soft  and  thin,  and  the  skins  very  much  appreciated 
by  the  tanners.     The  fur  is  also  valued  by  the  furriers. 

The  Walleroo  (Macropus-robustus)  is  smaller  than  any 
of  the  foregoing,  and  is  the  scarcest  of  all  Kangaroos.  It 
is  whitish  grey  in  color,  and  the  hair  is  so  coarse  and  harsh 
that  the  skins  are  only  suitable  for  the  tanner's  use. 

The  smallest  members  of  the  Kangaroo  tribe  are  the 
gregarious  Kangaroo  Rats  that  live  in  colonies  in  connect- 
ed burrow^s,  and  the  tree-climbing  Musk  Kanguroo,  whose 
body  exhales  a  strong  odor,  and  which  feeds  upon  insects 
and  worms.  The  Rat  Kangaroos  live  in  the  grass  and 
"scrub,"  and  according  to  Ingersoll,  ''scratch  the  ground 
all  day  in  search  of  the  roots  upon  which  they  feed,  and 
cause  havoc  in  the  potato  patches  of  the  frontiersmen." 

The  so-called  Hare  Kangaroos  (Lagorchetes) ,  live  on  the 
open  plains,  and  in  size,  color  and  habits  resemble  the  com- 
mon hare.  They  make  ''forms"  in  the  grass,  but  are 
exceedingly  fleet,  so  that  at  the  first  approach  of  danger 
they  generally  succeed  in  reaching  the  galleries,  they  have 
made  in  the  "scrub"  by  cutting  away  the  lower  branches 
and  spines,  where  it  is  almost  impossible  to  reach  them. 
Like  the  Kangaroo  Rats,  the  Kangaroo  Hares  differ  from 
the  true  Kangaroos  in  anatomical  peculiarities  as  well  as 
in  their  habits  and  appearance. 


258  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupials. 


THE  WALLABIES. 

Of  the  Wallabies,  or  Rock  Kangaroos,  the  Yellow  Wall- 
aby (Petrogale-xanthopus  is  the  one  oftenest  seen  in  cap- 
tivity. It  is  about  two  feet  long,  and  has  a  tail  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  the  narrow  head  and  long  ears  that 
characterize  all  Kangaroos.  The  long  dense  fur  is  soft 
and  fluffy,  and  the  general  color  is  yellowish,  shading  to  a 
light  brown  on  the  back,  and  showing  a  black  stripe  down 
the  center  and  white  marks  on  each  side.  This  species  is 
not  very  numerous,  and  the  skins  that  are  marketed  are 
shipped  to  London  from  Adelaide. 


The  Rock  Wallaby,  or  Bush-tailed  Kangaroo  (Petrogale- 
pencillata),  is  more  numerous,  and  has  a  two  inch  long 
reddish  silvery  fur  very  similar  to  that  of  the  red  Lynx; 
the  hair  on  the  back  is  grey  speckled,  rather  longer  than 
that  on  the  belly  w^hich  is  brownish  in  hue.  There  is  a 
black  line  between  the  eyes,  and  there  are  occasional 
white  spots  on  the  body.  The  fur  is  serviceable,  and  exten- 
sively used  for  making  coats,  capes  and  various  other 
articles.  This  species  inhabits  New  South  Wales  and 
Victoria,  and  the  best  skins  are  those  shipped  from 
Sydney. 


Phalangers.  259 

All  the  species  of  the  genus  Fetrogale,  or  Wallabies, 
have  shorter  toes  and  hind  legs  than  the  true  Kangaroos 
of  the  genus  Macropus;  and  the  under  surfaces  of  their 
feet  are  covered  with  horny  tubercles  to  prevent  them 
from  slipping.  They  do  not  support  the  weight  of  their 
bodies  on  the  tail,  although  they  can  use  it  to  balance  with. 

The  representatives  of  the  genus  Halmaturus,  to  which 
Bennett's  Wallaby,  or  Bush  Kangaroo  (Halmaturus-ben- 
netii),  and  the  Black  or  Swamp  Wallaby  (Halmaturus- 
wallabutus),  belong,  do  not  live  on  open  ground  like  the 
Macropus,  but  inhabit  the  swamps,  and  sections  of  country 
more  or  less  thickly  covered  with  brush  and  shrubs.  The 
close  lying  hairs  on  the  former  species  in  short  and  griz- 
zly, similar  to  the  Raccoon  in  color  but  browner,  and  the 
skins  are  used  hy  furriers  as  an  imitation  for  raccoon,  or 
made  into  leather  by  the  tanners.  The  Swamp  Wallaby  is 
one  of  the  largest  representatives  of  its  genus,  being  about 
three  feet  long,  but  the  reddish  brown  fur  is  coarse  and 
covered  with  long  black  hairs.  It  is  strong  and  service- 
able however,  and  the  smaller  skins  are  quite  extensively 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  coats  but  the  large  skins  are 
made  into  leather. 

Among  the  other  species  of  this  genus  are  the  large 
Antelope  Kangaroo  (Halmaturus-antelopinus),of  Northern 
Australia,  and  the  small  Bridled  Kangaroo,  or  Pedemelon 
— Paddy  Melon — (Halmaturus-thetidis),  of  New  South 
Wales,  the  Halmaturus-billardieri  that  lives  in  herds  in  the 
interior  of  Tasmania ;  and  the  eighteen  inch  Wood  Wallaby 
(Halmaturus-brachyurus),  which  spends  most  of  its  time 
in  the  trees,  and  whose  grizzly  brownish  soft  fur  is  well 
adapted  for  coat  linings. 

THE  PHALANGER. 

(Australian  Opossum.) 
The  Phalangers  are  for  the  most  part  small  in  size  and 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  common  and  the  flying 
Phalangers;  some  of  them  are  insect  eaters,  but  most  of 
them  live  on  the  young  shoots,  leaves  and  blossoms  of  the 
trees  they  inhabit.  All  the  species  of  Phalangers  have  long 
prehensile  tails,  and  six  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper,  and 
two  in  the  lower  jaw,  with  four  molars  on  each  side,  but 
the  small  premolars  vary  in  number. 


260  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupials. 

The  Vulpine  Phalanger,  (Trichosurus-vulpecula)  com- 
monly known  as  the  Australian  Opossum,  is  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  many  different  species  of  Phalangers.  It  is 
found  in  nearly  every  part  of  Australia,  and  seems  to  be 
constantly  increasing  in  numbers  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
millions  of  the  species  are  killed  annually  for  the  fur  value 
of  their  skins.  In  the  finest  skins  the  under  fur  is  a  bluish 
grey,  with  longer  and  darker  hairs  on  the  back  than  on  the 
belly,  which  is  yellowish,  and  has  very  dense  fine  short  hair. 
The  largest  representatives  of  this  species  are  found  in  Tas- 
mania, and  sometimes  measure  twenty-five  inches  in  length, 
exclusive  of  the  eleven  inch  tail ;  it  is  yellower,  and  the  fur 
is  longer  and  thicker  than  that  on  the  varieties  found  in 
other  parts  of  Australia.    The  Victoria  skins  have  a  darker 


Australian  Opossum.- 


and  richer  blue-grey  shade  than  any  others  except  those  of 
the  so-called  ''Adelaide  Opossum,"  which  is  the  smallest 
of  its  species,  and  has  a  fur  resembling  that  of  the  chinchilla 
in  appearance.  The  ''Melbourne  Opossum"  is  the  most  nu- 
merous of  all  the  Vulpine  Phalangers.  Its  length  is  about 
sixteen  inches  from  tip  to  tip.  The  dense  one  and  a  half 
inch  long  fur  is  usually  bluish  grey,  mingled  with  larger 
and  coarser  dark  hairs  on  the  ifpper  parts,  and  white  be- 
neath.   Most  of  the  ' '  Australian  Opossum ' '  skins  are  worked 


Opossums.  261 

up  and  sold  in  the  natural  color,  but  they  take  a  brilliant 
dye,  and  the  fur  becomes  soft  and  silky  in  the  process. 

Cook's  Phalanger,  generally  called  the  Ring-tail  Opossum, 
is  a  small  animal  only  six  inches  long,  with  a  tail  twice  the 
length  of  its  body.  The  fine  soft  fur  is  a  rich  blue  on  the 
back,  and  a  pure  white  on  the  belly;  like  the  ''Adelaide 
Opossum,"  it  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  chinchilla, 
and  is  sometimes  used  for  making  small  articles  of  fur  wear. 

The  skin  of  the  Great  Flying  Phalanger  (Petaurus-aus- 
tralis),  is  too  thin  to  allow  of  its  being  used  for  fur  pur- 
poses, but  mounted  specimens  of  this  animal  are  often  seen 
in  miJ§eums. 

THE  OPOSSUM. 

Of  all  the  Marsupials  the  Opossum  approaches  most 
closely  to  the  typical  mammal  in  the  structure  of  its 
reproductive  organs;  and  while  fossils  show  that  the 
different  families  of  Australian  Marsupials  are  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin,  the  American  Implacentals  are 
represented  amongst  the  earliest  mammalian  fossils. 

Some  of  the  family  Didelphidae,  which  includes  all  the 
American  Marsupials,  are  very  small  and  few  of  them 
attain  the  size  of  a  cat.  They  feed  chiefly  on  insects,  but 
will  also  eat  small  reptiles,  birds  and  eggs.  The  Water 
Opossum  (Chironectes)  differs  entirely  in  habits  from  the 
other  species  of  the  family,  and  has  the  webbed  feet 
necessary  for  an  aquatic  existence.  The  other  species, 
all  belonging  to  the  genus  Didelphy,  are  arboreal  and 
more  or  less  nocturnal  and  while  some  are  provided  with 
a  pouch,  others  are  destitute  of  it. 

The  Virginian  Opossum  (Didelphys-virginiana)  is  one 
of  the  largest  members  of  the  family  and  has  a  well 
developed  pouch,  as  have  also  the  species  found  in  Brazil. 
It  has  an  elongated  muzzle  that  makes  its  head  appear 
large  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  its  body  although  the 
brain  cavity  is  small.  The  tail  is  scaly  like  a  rat's, 
except  at  the  root,  and  the  black  ears  are  naked,  resem- 
bling a  bat's  wing.  The  feet,  which  are  naked  on  the 
under  surface,  each  have  five  toes,  the  inner  toes  of  the 
hind  feet  being  opposable. 

The  general  color  of  the  woolly  fur  is  a  yellowish  grey 
or  grizzly,  caused  by  the  white  underwool  showing  through 
black  or  brownish  top  hairs. 


262  Pouched  MzVmmals  or  Marsupials. 

Opossums  lead  solitarj-  lives,  except  in  the  pairing 
season  when  they  occupy  nests  of  dried  grass,  in  the 
hollows  or  roots  of  trees,  which  are  shared  by  the  young 
as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  leave  the  pouch. 

''The  opossum  brings  forth  a  litter  corresponding 
more  or  less  nearly  to  the  number  of  her  teats.  These 
are  thirteen,  disposed  in  a  circle,  six  on  each  side  and  one 
in  the  middle. 

"The  developmental  changes  which  take  place  within 
the  body  of  the  mother  occupy  from  twenty-four  to 
twenty-eight  days.  The  young  are  then  born  in  a  per- 
fectly helpless  condition,  and  only  about  half  an  inch 
in  length.  They  are  immediately  placed  in  the  pouch  by 
the  mother,  one  being  attached  to  each  of  the  long  teats. 
The  mouth  at  this  stage  is  well  formed,  and  the  fore 
limbs  are  sufficiently  advanced  for  the  claws  to  assist 
the  young  to  cling  to  the  teats,  but  the  hind  limbs  are 
developed  afterwards.  After  attachment,  the  corners  of 
the  mouth  grow  up  around  the  teat,  insuring  a  more  per- 
fect channel  for  the  flow  of  the  milk ;  this  is  further  aided 
by  a  well-marked  groove  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tongue.  In  five  or  six  weeks  the  young  opossums  have 
attained  the  size  of  little  mice,  and  in  about  two  months 
have  developed  sufficiently  to  leave  the  pouch. 

In  the  species  of  Opossums  that  are  characterized  by 
the  absence  of  the  pouch,  the  young  are  born  practically 
in  the  same  condition,  but  they  are  carried  on  the  back  of 
the  mother  after  they  are  old  enough  to  leave  the  teats, 
being  securely  held  there  by  means  of  their  prehensile 
tails,  which  are  twined  around  the  tail  of  the  mother. 

The  color  variation  in  Opossums  is  largely  due  to  age, 
the  half  grown  animals  looking  blackish  at  a  little  dis- 
tance while  the  old  ones  have  a  whitish  appearance.  The 
skins  are  worked  up  either  in  their  natural  color,  or  dyed 
and  sold  as  Black  Marten  or  skunk  opossum. 


Koala.  263 

THE  KOALA. 

(Native  Bear.) 

While  not  as  important  commercially  as  the  Common 
Phalanger,  the  skins  of  the  Koala  are  used  extensively  in  the 
manufacture  of  sleeping  bags,  coats  and  other  articles 
where  a  durable,  reasonable  priced  fur  is  desired.  The  sci- 
entific designation  of  this  animal  signifies  Ashy  Pouched 
Bear,  which  is  a  very  good  description  of  it.  The  Koala  is 
strictly  arboreal,  the  natives  often  being  obliged  to  fol- 
low it  to  the  top  of  the  highest  trees  sixty  and  seventy 
feet  above  the  ground. 


The  Koala  is  the  largest  Australian  mammal  living  in  the 
trees  and  that  is  probably  the  reason  why  it  is  called  the 
bear  by  the  natives,  as  it  is  unlike  that  animal  in  its  noc- 
turnal habits  as  well  as  its  slow  movements,  in  both  of 
which  characteristics  it  resembles  the  sloth. 

It  is  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  and  the 
general  color  is  a  light  grey,  the  tips  of  the  coarse  hair  be- 
ing white.  The  upper  part  of  the  belly  and  chest  and  the 
insides  of  the  legs  are  white,  and  the  lower  part  of  the  belly 
is  reddish  brown,  at  times  approaching  to  a  dark  purple 
hue.  The  fur  on  the  hind  quarters  is  much  shorter  than  on 
the  rest  of  the  body,  and  has  patches  and  spots  of  white.  The 
ears  are  very  short,  tufted  on  the  inside  with  long  white 


264  Pouched  Mammals  or  Marsupials. 

hairs.  The  head,  which  is  broad  and  short,  is  surrounded 
with  a  fringe  of  hair.  The  nose  is  bare,  and  whiskers  are 
absent.  The  formation  of  the  feet  is  singular,  the  claws  of 
the  fore-paws  being  five  in  number,  the  two  inner  ones  op- 
posable to  the  toes  like  the  thumb  of  a  man  to  the 
fingers  of  the  hand.  The  next  two  toes  are  small  and  joined 
together,  and  the  fourth,  which  is  the  longest,  is  separate, 
as  is  also  the  fifth  which  however  is  somewhat  shorter. 


THE  WOMBAT. 

The  Phascolomyidae  is  a  family  of  Marsupials  repre- 
sented by  a  single  genus,  the  Wombat,  sometimes  called 
the  Australian  Badger.  There  are  three  species  of  this 
animal — Phascolomys-platyrhinus,  Phase  olomys-latifrons 
and  Phascolomys-wombat.  The  latter  is  the  most  com- 
mon. It  is  a  clumsy  animal,  but  in  spite  of  its  shuMing 
gait  is  able  to  cover  considerable  ground,  as  it  is  patient 
and  persistent.  It  is  easily  caught  alive,  and  in  captivity 
is  indifferent  to  its  keeper's  appearance  and  cares  for 
nothing  but  its  food.  It  is  difficult  to  arouse  Wombats 
from  their  ordinary  condition  of  good  natured  indiffer- 
ence, but  when  excited  they  are  able  to  take  care  of 
themselves  with  their  chisel-like  teeth. 

The  Common  Wombat  is  about  two  feet  long,  has  a 
rudimentary  tail,  short  thick  neck,  and  a  large  head.  The 
short  stout  legs  are  adapted  for  burrowing  by  the  stout 
curved  claws  with  which  the  toes,  with  the  exception  of 
the  innermost  toe  on  each  hind  foot,  are  armed.  It  lives 
chiefly  on  roots  which  it  gnaws  after  the  fashion  of  the 
rodents.  It  has. two  chisel-like  incisor  teeth  in  the  upper 
and  two  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  like  the  beaver's  are 
separated  by  a  gap  from  the  molars.  Of  the  five  rootless 
molars  in  each  jaw,  the  foremost  of  each  series  is  a  pre- 
molar of  only  half  the  size  of  the  true  molars. 

The  short  fur  is  soft  and  dense,  and  of  the  general 
whitish  grey  color  characteristic  of  most  of  the  Australian 
mammals.  It  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheap,  serviceable  fur  coats,  sleeping  bags  and  robes. 

The  Bandicoots  are  small  animals  that  show  the  same 
disproportionate  development  of  the  hind  legs  which  char- 


Bandicoots  and  Dasyures.  265 

acterizes  all  the  species  of  Kangaroos,  but  instead  of 
prQgressing  by  a  series  of  bounds  like  the  latter  their 
gait  is  a  combination  of  running  and  leaping  similar  to 
that  of  the  hares;  they  are  distinguished  by  having  the 
opening  of  the  pouch  turned  backward  instead  of  forward, 
as  is  the  case  with  all  other  Marsupials. 

The  Bandicoots  live  in  the  cooler  and  more  mountainous 
regions  of  Australia,  and  form  burrows  in  their  search 
for  roots  and  tubers  often  proving  a  nuisance  to 
settlers  by  ravaging  potato  fields  and  burrowing  under 
the  walls  of  barns  to  get  at  the  grain.  There  are  two 
genera  of  Bandicoots — the  Perameles,  resembling  the  rat 
in  form  and  the  sparsely  haired  character  of  the  tail, 
which  is  represented  by  a  half  dozen  or  more  species  on 
the  continent  of  Australia,  and  the  Choeropus-castanotis, 
or  Pig-footed  Bandicoot,  found  only  in  South  Australia. 
They  agree  in  general  habits,  but  the  Choeropus,  instead 
of  living  in  burrows,  make  nests  for  themselves  in  the 
thick  underbrush  where  they  easily  escape  notice.  Their 
fur  is  longer  than  that  on  the  Perameles,  and  they  have 
slenderer  legs  and  only  two  toes — the  second  and  third — 
on  the  fore  feet,  and  only  one  on  the  hind  feet — the 
fourth — which  bears  the  weight  of  the  body;  the  second 
and  third  joined  toes,  and  the  fifth  are  present  and  bear 
nails,  but  are  quite  rudimentary.  All  the  species  of  the 
Perameles  bear  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  fourth  and 
fifth  toes  of  the  hind  feet,  and  have  five  toes  on  the  fore 
feet,  the  two  inner  ones  being  rudimentary  and  nailless. 

The  skins  of  the  Bandicoot  are  of  little  value  either  for 
fur  or  leather  purposes. 

The  Dasyuridae  Family  includes  both  Carnivorous  and 
Insectivorous  types,  differing  from  the  other  Marsupials 
in  the  character  of  their  dentition  and  in  having  the 
second  and  third  toes  of  the  hind  feet  perfectly  free  from 
each  other.  The  Dasyuridae  is  rich  in  Genera  and  Species, 
ranging  from  mouse-like  insect  eaters  to  the  Carnivorous 
Spotted  Cat  of  Australia  (Dasyurus-maugoei)  and  the 
Tasmanian  Devil  (Dasyurus-ursinus)  resembling  the  Bad- 
ger in  the  form  of  body  and  large  head,  while  the  tex- 
ture of  its  deep  black  fur  is  more  like  that  of  the  bear. 
Some  of  the  smaller  species  possess  a  small  inner  toe  on 
the  hind  foot  which  is  wanting  in  the  type  variety. 


266  MONOTREMATA. 


THE  MONOTREMATA. 

The  Monotremata  are  an  order  of  Australian  Mam- 
mals whose  young  are  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  the  fe- 
male, and  they  are  known  as  egg-laying  mammals  because 
the  young  when  hatched  are  suckled  by  the  mother. 

The  Platybus  (Ornithorhynchus-anatinus),  or  as  it  is 
sometimes  called  the  Duck  Bill,  because  of  the  bill  which 
forms  the  extremity  of  its  head,  has  a  mole-like  browTiish 
black  under  fur  that  excells  that  of  the  seal  in  richness. 
The  color  of  the  water  hairs  that  protect  the  under  fur 
are  a  silvery  brown  on  top  and  lighter  on  the  belly,  giving 
the  animal  a  beautiful  appearance  when  in  full  pelage. 

The  Platybus  is  a  small  animal,  from  eighteen  to 
twenty  inches  long  from  tip  to  tip ;  in  structure  it  some- 
what ^resembles  the  reptiles,  and  like  all  water  animals 
has  a  thick  pelt  and  no  external  ears.  It  has  no  teeth.  The 
eyes  are  small,  and  the  bill  is  perforated  with  two  holes 
for  nostrils.  The  limbs  are  short,  and  each  foot  has  five 
complete  toes  furnished  with  strong  nails.  The  fore  feet 
are  webbed  considerably  beyond  the  extremity  of  the 
nails,  but  on  the  hind  feet  the  web  reaches  only  to  the 
base  of  the  nails.  The  nails  of  the  fore  feet  are  some- 
what flattened  and  expanded,  but  those  on  the  hind  feet 
are  longer,  narrow  and  curved.  The  heel  of  the  Platybus 
is  furnished  with  a  spur  like  that  of  the  gamecock  but  not 
so  long. 

The  Platybus  lives  in  burrows  from  twenty  to  forty 
feet  deep,  with  one  entrance  to  its  nest  from  the  land  and 
another  from  the  water.  The  young  are  bom  hairless  and 
blind  and  totally  unlike  the  full  grown  animal,  having 
short  fleshy  lips  with  which  to  obtain  the  milk  from  the 
mammae  of  the  parent.  While  possessing  marsupial 
bones  similar  to  those  of  the  Pouched  Mammals  the  female 
Platybus  has  no  pouch. 

Dehaired  and  dyed,  the  fur  of  the  Platybus  is  much 
finer  than  that  of  the  seal,  and  well  adapted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  caps  and  other  small  articles  or  trimming  orna- 
ments, but  comparatively  few  skins  reach  the  fur  markets 
of  the  world. 


Egg  Laying  Mammals.  267 

The  Echidna  (Echidna-hystrix)  is  an  ant  eater  that 
has  a  much  more  extensive  distribution  than  the  Platybus, 
from  which  it  differs  in  structure  as  well  as  appearance; 
instead  of  a  mole-like  fur,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  and 
body  are  covered  with  a  mixture  of  stiff  hairs,  and  short 
thick  spines  that  have  caused  it  to  be  called  the  Australian 
Porcupine.  Although  in  some  localities  the  underwool  of 
the  Echidna  is  abundant,  its  skin  is  of  little  value  for  any 
purpose,  and  it  is  only  mentioned  here  because  of  its  pe- 
culiarities. It  has  a  long  bill  but  no  teeth,  and  feeds  solely 
on  ants  which  it  obtains  by  means  of  its  long  tongue, 
which  like  the  palate  is  beset  with  spines.  The  eyes  are  of 
fair  size,  but  it  has  no  ears,  and  the  tail  is  a  mere  stump. 
The  body  is  broad  and  depressed,  and  the  line  of  division 
between  the  spine  covered  back  and  the  hairy  under  parts 
is  sharply  drawn.  The  short  strong  limbs  are  armed  with 
very  powerful  claws,  varying  in  number  in  the  different 
species  from  three  to  five  on  each  foot. 

Echidnas  are  fossorial  and  in  the  main  nocturnal 
animals,  inhabiting  rocky  districts  in  the  mountains  at  an 
elevation  of  three  thousand  feet  and  upwards.  Little  is 
known  of  their  breeding  habits,  but  according  to  the  na- 
tives they  lay  eggs,  and  the  young,  two  in  number,  are 
born  during  the  Australian  winter,  usually  in  May. 


268 


The  Primates. 


269 


THE  PRIMATES. 

Linnaeus  included  Man  and  the  Bat,  as  well  as  the 
Monkeys  and  Lemurs,  in  the  order  of  Primates ;  but  now 
the  Bats  are  placed  in  a  separate  order — Chioptera,  and 
Man  is  referred  to  as  belonging  to  the  Bimana,  while  the 
Monkeys  and  Lemurs  are  usually  spoken  of  as  Quad- 
rumana ;  although  strictly  speaking  the  Bimana  and  Quad- 
rumana,  the  latter  so  called  because  of  their  ability  to  use 
both  front  and  hind  feet  as  hands,  are  simply  subdivisions 
of  the  order  of  Primates,  which  is  therefore  naturally  con- 
sidered the  first  and  highest  order  of  the  sub-kingdom 
Vertebrata. 

Cuvier,  writing  of  the  Quadrumana  in  his  '' Animal 
Kingdom,"  says:  ''Independently  from  the  anatomical 
details  which  distinguish  it  from  Man,  this  family  differs 
from  our  species  in  a  remarkable  way.  All  the  animals 
belonging  to  it  have  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  free  and 
opposable  to  the  others,  and  the  toes  on  all  are  as  long  and 
flexible  as  fingers.  In  consequence  of  this  the  whole 
species  climb  trees  with  the  greatest  facility,  while  it  is 
only  with  pain  and  difficulty  they  can  stand  and  walk 
upright,  their  foot  resting  on  its  outer  edge  only  and  their 
narrow  pelvis  being  unfavorable  to  an  equilibrium.  They 
differ  from  Man  by  having  a  much  more  elongated  muzzle 
and  a  tail,  and  a  gait  more  like  that  of  other  quadrupeds. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  freedom  of  their  arms  and  the 
complication  of  their  hands  allow  them  all  to  perform 
many  of  the  actions  of  mail  as  well  as  to  imitate  his  ges- 
tures." 

Everybody  knows  what  an  Ape  or  Monkey  is,  but  com- 
paratively few  can  tell  how  to  distinguish  the  Apes  from 
the  true  Monkeys  and  the  Baboons  or  Dog-faced  Monkeys, 
or  what  constitutes  the  line  of  demarkation  between  these 
two  groups  and  the  Lemurs,  which  are  closely  related  to 
them  but  have  so  many  different  characteristics  that  they 
are  placed  in  a  separate  family  (Lemuridae) ;  while  the 
Apes  are  classified  as  Simiidae  and  all  the  Old  World 
Baboons  and  Monkeys  are  grouped  together  in  the  family 
Oeropithecidae,  and  all  the  American  Monkeys,  except  the 


270  QUADRUMANA. 

Marmosets,  which  belong  tp  the  family  Halpalidae,   are 
included  in  the  family  Cebidae. 

Because  of  structural  differences  and  peculiarities  of 
coloration  and  appearance,  there  are  numerous  genera 
with  a  variety  of  species  in  each  family  of  the  Quad- 
rumana,  but  only  a  few  of  them  are  entitled  to  considera- 
tion as  fur-bearing  animals.  Monkeys  are  most  abundant 
in  the  tropical  parts  of  South  America  and  Africa,  al- 
though they  are  fairly  numerous  in  the  warmer  portions  of 
Asia,  and  some  specimens  are  found  as  far  north  as  the 
snow  line.  The  only  species  in  Europe  is  the  Barbary 
Maccaque  (Macacus-inuus).  Nearly  all  the  leading  species 
of  Monkeys  have  specific  common  names  as  well  as  differ- 
ent technical  scientific  designations. 

The  Monkeys  all  have  four  straight  incisors  in  each 
jaw,  and  with  a  single  exception  flat  nails  on  all  the  ex- 
tremities, two  characters  which  approximate  them  more 
nearly  to  Man  than  the  Lemurs;  their  molars  are  blunt 
tubercles  like  ours,  and  their  food  consists  chiefly  of  fruit. 
Their  canine  teeth  being  longer  than  the  rest  supply  a 
weapon  which  we  do  not  possess,  and  require  a  hollow  in 
the  opposite  jaw  to  receive  them  when  the  mouth  is  closed. 

The  Monkeys  of  the  Eastern  Continent  all  have  the 
same  number  of  grinders  as  Man ;  but  the  Marmosets  are 
the  only  Monkeys  of  the  New  World  of  which  this  can 
be  said,  all  the  representatives  of  the  Cebidae  having  eight 
bicuspeds  instead  of  four.  None  of  the  American  Monkeys 
have  cheek  pouches,  and  they  can  always  be  distinguished 
by  the  absence  of  the  deep  callosities  which  are  found  on 
the  buttocks  of  all  the  Old  World  species  except  the  Apes,, 
with  which  they  could  never  be  confounded  because  of 
their  small  size.  The  American  Monkeys  are  purely  ar- 
boreal, passing  all  of  their  time  in  the  tree  tops,  swinging 
from  branch  to  branch,  and  rarely  if  ever  descending  to 
the  ground.  They  have  all  their  digits  provided  with  well 
developed  nails,  but  those  who  have  thumbs  cannot  oppose 
that  digit  to  the  other  digits  of  the  hand  as  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  foreign  species  do. 

For  a  long  time  zoologists  classed  all  the  Old  World 
Monkeys  as  belonging  to  one  family  (Oatarhini)  because- 
of  the  very  thin  partition  between  their  nostrils,  while 
they  grouped  all  the  broad-nosed  monkeys  of  the  Western. 


Apes,  Baboons  and  Monkeys.  271 

Continent  in  the  family  (Platyrhini)  on  account  of  the 
greater  width  of  the  vertical  partition  between  the  two 
nostrils.  This  classification  has  been  generally  aban- 
doned for  the  one  that  divides  the  Monkeys  of  the  Old 
"World  into  the  Simiidae  and  Ceropithecidae  families,  and 
places  the  Marmosets  with  their  thirty-two  teeth,  clawed 
toes,  and  nonprehensile  tails,  in  the  family  Halpalidae, 
and  all  the  other  South  American  species  with  prehensile 
tails  and  thirty-six  teeth,  in  the  family  Cebidae. 

The  Baboons  differ  from  the  rest  of  the  Quadrumana  in 
disposition  as  well  as  appearance,  having  fierce  tempers 
and  a  bull  dog  courage,  combined  with  strength  and  agil- 
ity that  enables  them  to  meet  their  most  powerful  enemies 
upon  something  like  equal  terms ;  and  it  is  said  that  even 
in  captivity  they  must  at  all  times  be  treated  as  dangerous 
animals.  The  Mandrill  (Cynocephalus-mormon)  of  West 
Africa,  with  its  long  shaggy  hair,  lion  like  appearance, 
and  the  peculiar  markings  on  its  face  which  accentuate 
the  grimaces  which  it  is  constantly  making,  is  the  most 
interesting  and  wonderful  of  the  Baboons.  It  is  easily  the 
largest,  most  formidable,  ferocious  and  hideous  of  its  kind, 
and  fully  justifies  Dr.  Hornaday's  statement  that  ''It 
seems  like  an  animal  not  of  this  earth,  but  reminds  one 
of  the  great  beasts  of  the  vision  of  St.  John  the  Divine." 
The  Hamadryas  Baboon,  with  long  side  whiskers  and  a 
cape  of  long  hair,  is  the  handsomest  representative  of  the 
Dog-faced  Monkeys,  while  the  Golden  Baboon  has  the 
liveliest  disposition,  is  the  best  tempered. 

Of  all  the  Quadrumana,  the  Gorilla  (Gorilla-savagei), 
resembles  Man  the  closest  in  walk  and  in  structural  for- 
mation, but  the  Orang  Utang( Simla) and  the  Chimpanzees 
(Athropopithecus-niger  and  -calvus)  approximate  the 
nearest  to  the  Hominidae  in  intelligence  and  susceptibility 
to  training,  both  being  mentally  superior  to  the  Gorilla 
and  the  long-armed  Gibbons  (Hylobartes-lar)  ;  but  as 
none  of  the  Apes  are  fur-bearing  animals,  our  present  in- 
terest lies  with  some  of  the  representatives  of  the  Cero- 
pithecidae rather  than  any  of  the  members  of  the  Simiidae 
family. 

Generally  speaking,  the  Black  Monkey  of  commerce  is 
the  skin  of  the  White  Thighed  Colobus  (Colobus-velloro- 
sus)  while  is  very  abundant  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 


272  QUADRUMANA. 

This  species  is  from  one  to  two  feet  long  exclusive  of  the 
tail  which  will  measure  fully  two  feet.  The  long  black 
silky  hair  on  the  back  is  from  two  to  four  inches  long,  and 
in  some  cases  is  divided  by  a  natural  part  in  the  center. 
In  some  localities  the  hair  is  coarse  and  harsh  and  the 
skins  consequently  are  of  less  value.  The  tail  of  this 
animal  is  white  and  slightly  tufted,  and  the  beard,  cheeks 
and  the  long  fringe  around  the  black  face  are  also  pure 
white  and  there  is  a  white  spot  on  the  chest.  The  legs  and 
feet  are  black,  but  the  sparse  short  hair  on  the  thighs  and 
rump  is  of  a  greyish  white  color.  The  skins  of  the  Ursini 
Colobus  (Colobus-ursinius),  from  Sierra  Lerone,  are  also 
sold  as  Black  Monkeys,  but  they  are  smaller  and  harsher 
and  only  a  small  quantity  are  marketed. 

The  Abyssinian  Monkey  (Colobus-guereza),  whose  home 
is  in  the  mountains  of  East  Central  Africa,  is  one  of  the 
largest  and  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  true  Monkeys. 
The  skins  measure  from  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet, 
exclusive  of  the  four-foot  tail;  the  long  silky  white  hair  is 
marked  with  a  black  saddle  on  the  back,  and  the  thick  bushy 
black  tail  has  a  beautiful  long  white  tuft  on  the  end.  The 
legs  are  all  black,  but  the  black  face  is  surrounded  by  a 
white  fringe.  The  skins  are  highly  prized  but  they  are 
very  rare. 

The  skins  of  the  Grey  Monkey  of  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  also  known  as  the  Diana  Monkey  (Ceropithecus 
diana),  are  much  more  common  in  the  fur  markets  than 
those  of  the  Abyssinian  Monkey.  It  is  almost  eighteen 
inches  long  with  a  black  tail  twice  the  length  of  the  body. 
The  color  of  the  back  is  a  bright  chestnut  brown,  the 
sides  are  grizzly,  and  the  cheeks,  chest  and  belly,  white. 
A  white  beard,  and  a  white  line  on  the  forehead,  as  well 
as  one  on  the  thighs  separating  the  black  extremities  from 
the  brown  and  silvery  body,  help  to  give  a  striking  ap- 
pearance to  this  animal. 

The  fur  of  the  Blue  Monkey  or  Mountain  Entellus  of  the 
Himalayas  (Semnopithicus-schistanus),  is  highly  esteemed. 
The  hair  is  three  inches  long,  dense  and  silky,  and  varies 
in  color  from  a  bluish  grey  in  some  specimens  to  a  dark 
grey  in  others ;  the  belly  being  lighter  in  color  than  the  back 
and  almost  bare.  There  is  a  white  tuft  on  the  two-foot 
tail,  and  a  crest  of  black  fur  between  the  eves.       The 


The  Monkey  Tribe.  273 

length  of  the  body  of  this  animal  is  from  two  to  three  feet. 

There  are  a  number  of  other  African  Monkeys  that  are 
hunted  more  or  less  for  their  skins,  but  none  of  them  are 
of  much  importance  commercially,  the  skins  of  the  various 
species  all  being  sold  under  the  comprehensive  name  of 
** Common  Monkey,"  which  is  made  to  include:  Camp- 
bell's Monkey  (Ceropithecus-campbelli),  the  Mona 
Monkey  (Ceropithecus-mona),  the  Green  Monkey  (Cero- 
pithecus-callithricus),  the  Grivet  Monkey  (Oeropithecus- 
griseoviridis),  the  Malbrouck  Monkey  (Ceropithecus- 
cynosurus),  the  Patas  Monkey  (Ceropithecus-patas),  the 
Vervet  (Ceropithecus-lalandi),  the  Moustache  Monkey 
(Ceropithecus-cephus),  the  Red  Monkey  (Ceropithecus- 
erythrogasta),  the  Pluto  Monkey  (Ceropithecus-pluto),  the 
Blue  Monkey  (Cerocebus-fuliginosis),  the  Wanderoo  Mon- 
key (Macacus-silenus),  the  China  Grey  Monkey  (Macacus- 
tchelicusis),  and  a  number  of.  others. 

The  Marmosets  of  South  America,  also  known  as  Ouistitis 
and  Tamarins,  are  the  smallest  of  the  Monkey  tribe ;  and 
in  fact  are  more  like  squirrels  than  Monkeys  in  size  as 
well  as  habits,  climbing  in  the  same  way  and  subsisting 
not  only  on  fruits,  but  also  to  a  large  extent  on  insects. 
The  Marmosets  measure  from  several  inches  to  one  foot 
in  length,  and  have  a  short  thick  silky  or  woolly  fur, 
which  lengthens  in  some  species  into  ear  tufts  and  in 
others  into  a  kind  of  mane.  These  little  animals  are  ex- 
tremely variable  in  coloration,  and  are  very  sensitive  to 
cold;  they  are  of  a  low  order  of  intelligence  but  make 
amusing  pets  when  kept  in  confinement.  There  are  many 
different  varieties  or  species  in  the  two  genera  into  which 
they  are  divided  to  distinguish  those  whose  lower  canine 
teeth  are  longer  than  the  front  teeth  from  the  others ;  but 
they  all  have  long  prehensile  tails,  and  toes  that  with  the 
exception  of  the  great  toe  are  furnished  with  pointed  claws 
instead  of  the  more  or  less  flattened  nails  that  characterize 
other  Monkeys;  the  differences  in  appearance  are  occa- 
sioned principally  by  the  length  of  the  fur  and  the  variety 
in  coloration. 

The  best  known  American  Monkeys  are  some  of  the 
species  of  the  Woolly  Monkey  (genus  Lagothrix),  the 
Spider  Monkeys  of  the  genera  Eriodes  and  Ateles ;  and  the 
Sapajous   or   Capauchin  Monkeys   of  the   genus  Cebus, 


274  QUADRUMANA. 

which  are  the  typical  long  prehensile  tailed  representa- 
tives of  the  family  Cebidae  and  the  variety  commonly 
seen  in  the  menageries.  The  non-prehensile  tailed  mem- 
bers of  this  family  are  the  Owl-faced  Monkeys  of  the 
genus  Nycthitithecns,  the  Squirrel  Monkey  of  the  genus 
Chrysothrix,  the  Brazilian  Titi  Monkey  of  the  genus  Cal- 
lithrix,  the  Saki  Monkey  of  the  genus  Pithecia,  the  Ukari 
Monkey  of  the  genus  Uacaria,  and  the  Howling  Monkeys 
of  the  genus  Mj^cetes. 

THE  LEMURS. 

The  Lemurs,  according  to  Linnaeus,  comprehend  all  the 
Primates  that  have  in  either  jaw  incisors  different  in  num- 
ber from  four,  or  at  least  differently  directed  than  those 
of  the  Monkeys;  this  negative  characterization  could  not 
fail  to  embrace  very  different  beings,  while  it  did  not  even 
include  those  which  should  be  combined.  Geoffroy  has 
established  several  divisions  of  this  genus  which  are  much 
better  characterized.  The  fore-thumbs  of  these  animals 
are  well  developed  and  opposable,  and  the  first  hind  finger 
is  armed  with  a  pointed  raised  nail,  all  the  other  nails 
being  flat.  Their  fur  is  wooly,  and  their  teeth  exhibit 
sharp  tubercles  catching  in  each  other  as  in  the  Insectivora. 
They  are  very  active  animals,  and  from  their  pointed 
heads  have  sometimes  been  called  Fox-nosed  Monkeys. 
Their  food  is  fruit.  Their  species  are  very  numerous,  but 
they  are  only  met  with  in  the  Island  of  Madagascar  where 
no  Monkeys  are  found.  Nearly  all  the  difference  that 
exists  between  the  different  species  of  Lemurs  is  in  the 
color.     Their  skins  are  of  little  value. 

The  Black  Lemur  (Lemur-macaco)  is  a  handsome  ani- 
mal about  twenty  inches  long,  which  inhabits  the  dense 
inland  forests  on  the  Island  of  Madagascar.  The  head 
and  back  are  covered  with  a  thick  jet  black  fur  about 
one  inch  long,  but  on  the  chest  the  thin  fur  is  brown  with 
a  patch  of  white  in  the  center. 

The  Black  and  White,  or  Ruffled  Lemur  ( Lemur- albi- 
f rons) ,  is  really  a  variety  of  the  Black  Lemur  and  is  found 
in  the  same  habitat.  It  has  the  same  narrow  head,  short 
tail,  long  legs,  and  fingers  furnished  with  spongy  pads. 
The  back  and  lower  half  of  the  body  are  light  brown, 
almost  white,  but  the  hind  legs  and  arms  are  a  dark 
brown. 


The  Lemurs. 


275 


The  Red-Fronted  Lemur  (Lemur-rubifrons) ;  the  Rin^- 
Tailed  Lemur  (Lemur-catta),  and  the  Grey  or  Brown 
Mouse  Lemur  (Cherogalens-nutri),  are  all  smaller  than 
the  Black  and  the  Ruffled  Lemurs,  the  general  color  of 
each  being  various  shades  of  grey,  with  the  distinctive 
markings  that  the  different  names  indicate. 

The  Woolly  or  Dwarf  Lemur  (Microcebus-senithir),  the 
smallest  of  the  Lemurs,  is  of  a  brown  grey  color  and  only 
six  inches  in  length. 


Drill    (Dog-Faced  Monkey). 


We  have  devoted  so  much  space  to  the  Quadrumana 
on  account  of  the  general  interest  felt  in  these  animals 
because  of  theories  advanced  by  Darwin  and  other  scien- 
tists in  regard  to  their  relationship  to  man,  rather  than 
because  of  their  value  as  fur-bearing  animals. 


276  Chiromyidae  and  Tarsiidae. 

The  Aye  Aye  (Chiromys-madagascariensis),  the  only 
representative  of  the  family  Chiromyidae,  is  the  last  of  the 
lemur-like  animals,  but  it  has  teeth  so  different  from  the 
Primates  that  it  must  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
Rodentia.  This  animal  measures  about  three  feet  from 
tip  to  tip,  most  of  the  length  being  in  the  bushy  tail.  The 
claw  corresponding  to  our  middle  finger  is  of  great  length 
and  slenderness,  and  is  probably  used  to  extract  from 
their  burrows  the  larvae  which  is  the  principal  article  of 
its  diet.  The  Aye  Aye  is  dark  brown  in  color  on  top,  red- 
dish on  the  under  parts,  and  greyish  yellow  on  the  throat. 
It  is  nocturnal,  builds  its  nest  in  the  upper  branches  of 
trees,  and  gives  birth  to  but  one  young  at  a  time.  The 
natives  of  Madagascar  have  a  superstitious  fear  of  the 
creature,  and  it  is  therefore  hard  to  obtain,  although  it  is 
inoffensive  and  easily  tamed. 

The  Tarsier  (Tarsius-spectrum)  is  another  animal  that 
in  many  respects  resembles  the  Lemurs,  but  is  so  different 
in  others  that  it  is  placed  in  a  separate  family — the  Tar- 
siidae. It  is  arboreal  and  nocturnal  in  habit,  about  the 
size  of  a  small  rat,  and  covered  with  a  soft  thick  fur ;  the 
general  color  is  a  dark  fawn,  with  a  reddish  face  and  fore- 
head, and  dark  rings  around  the  eyes.  The  tarsal  bones 
of  the  hind  limbs  are  unusually  long  and  the  hand  is  also 
noticeable  for  its  length  and  the  curious  claws  with  which 
it  is  provided.  It  has  thirty-four  teeth — four  more  than 
the  Indri,  and  two  more  than  the  true  Lemur.  It  feeds  on 
insects  and  small  reptiles,  never  eating  fruit.  Its  habitat 
is  in  the  Malayan  Islands,  where  it  is  looked  upon  with 
dread  by  the  natives. 


277 


THE  BEAVER  (Castoridae) 

The  Beaver  is  the  most  interesting  of  all  fur  bearing 
animals.  It  possesses  almost  human  intelligence,  and  its 
instinct  is  often  better  than  human  judgment.  It  works 
with  marvelous  ingenuity,  and  illimitable  patience  in  the 
construction  of  its  lodges  and  dams;  and  will  attack  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  without  any  regard  to  its  size,  and  fell  it 
by  gnawing  through  the  wood  with  its  chisel-like  teeth. 

According  to  Cuvier,  ''The  Beavers  choose  waters  of 
sufficient  depth  not  to  be  frozen  to  the  bottom;  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  running  streams,  in  order  that  the  wood 
that  they  cut  above,  may  be  carried  down  by  the  cur- 
rent to  the  spot  where  it  is  to  be  used.  They  keep  the 
water  at  an  equal  height,  by  dams;  composed  of  all  sorts 
of  branches,  mixed  with  clay  and  stones,  the  strength  of 
which  is  ever  increased,  and  which  finally,  by  a  process 
of  vegetation,  become  converted  into  hedges.  Each  hut 
serves  for  two  or  three  families,  and  consists  of  two  stor- 
ies. The  upper  story  is  dry,  for  the  residence  of  the 
animals ;  and  the  lower  is  under  water,  for  the  storage  of 
their  bark,  etc.  The  lower  story  alone  is  open,  and  the 
entrance  is  under  water,  having  no  connection  with  the 
land.  The  huts  are  a  kind  of  rude  wicker-work,  being 
made  of  interwoven  branches  and  twigs,  plastered  with 
mud.  There  are  always  several  burrows  along  the  bank, 
in  which  they  seek  shelter  when  their  huts  are  attacked. 
They  only  reside  in  these  habitations  in  winter,  in  the 
summer  they  separate,  and  live  singly  in  holes  in  the 
bank.  They  are  usually  caught  in  traps,  but  they  are 
sometimes  taken  in  nets;  or  their  houses  are  broken  into, 
and  when  the  animals  take  refuge  in  the  water,  they  give 
the  alarm  to  their  companions  by  striking  the  surface  of  the 
water  with  their  tail.  Beavers  have  been  known  to  cause 
the  waters  of  a  lake  to  rise  by  building  a  dam  across  the 
outlet;  and  the  soil,  in  many  sections,  has  been  enriched 
by  the  alluvial  deposits,  resulting  from  the  dams  which 
have  been  constructed  by  beavers  to  collect  the  water, 
that  but  for  their  efforts,  would  have  been  carried  off  in 
many  small  streams."  , 


278  RODENTIA. 

Kingsley  claims  that  many  of  the  tales  that  have  been 
told  about  this  animal  are  fanciful  exaggerations.  He 
says,  "No  beaver  could  learn  the  trick  of  felling  the  tree 
to  fall  in  a  given  direction.  What  it  has  found  out,  is, 
that  by  biting  a  tree  long  enough,  and  hard  enough,  it  can 
bring  down  within  reach  the  twigs  it  w^ants  to  eat.  The 
appearance  of  a  stump  left  by  a  beaver  is  different  from 
that  left  by  a  woodsman,  who  causes  the  tree  to  fall  in 
the  required  direction  by  cutting  one  side  lower  than  the 
other.  The  tree  felled  by  the  beaver  is  gnawed  all  around 
its  circumference,  so  that  an  hour-glass  shape  results,  with 
a  constantly  contracting  center,  until  the  tree  falls  to 
whatever  side  it  is  inclined,  the  trunk  as  well  as  the  end 
of  the  stump  being  conical."  Those  who  have  seen  trunks 
of  trees  floating  in  the  streams,  where  the  beavers  have 
operated,  know  that  the  stories  told  about  its  sagacity 
in  only  cutting  the  trees  that  can  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  its  homes  and  dams  are  products  of  the  imagina- 
tion; but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  certainly  something 
more  than  a  coincidence,  that  the  trees  felled  by  the 
beavers  never  fall  in  the  direction  of  their  lodges ;  some- 
thing certainly  teaches  them  to  bite  harder  on  the  side 
where  a  deeper  cut  will  cause  the  tree  to  fall  in  the  direc- 
tion that  will  save  the  work,  upon  which  they  have  ex- 
pended so  much  time  and  skill,  from  destruction. 

Beavers  work  only  at  night,  and  their  food  is  of  a 
vegetable  nature.  They  thrive  in  captivity,  and  can  be 
tamed  and  made  to  eat  bread  and  cabbage,  or  flesh. 
Dr.  Richardson  says:  "The  Beaver  attains  its  full  size 
in  about  three  years,  but  breeds  before  that  time.  Ac- 
cording to  Indian  report,  it  pairs  in  February,  and  after 
carrying  its  young  about  three  months,  brings  forth  from 
four  to  eight  or  nine  cubs,  toward  the  middle  or  end  of 
May."  Hearne  states  the  usual  number  of  young  pro- 
duced by  the  Beaver  at  a  time  to  be  from  two  to  five, 
and  that  he  only  saw  six,  in  two  instances,  although 
he  had  witnessed  the  capture  of  some  hundreds  in  a  gra- 
vid state.  In  the  pairing  season,  the  call  of  the  Beaver 
is  a  kind  of  groan ;  but  the  voice  of  the  cubs,  which  are 
very  playful,  resembles  the  cry  of  an  infant. 

The  Beaver  is  a  large  animal,  weighing  from  forty-five 
to  sixty  pounds;  and  measuring  from  two  to  three  feet  in 


The  Beaver. 


279 


280  RODENTIA. 

length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  is  about  ten  inches 
long.  Its  life  is  completely  aquatic,  both  the  feet  and 
tail  aiding  it  in  swimming,  and  its  ears  are  nearly  hidden 
in  the  fur.  The  color  of  the  fur  of  the  Beaver  varies 
from  a  light  to  a  dark  chestnut  brown,  in  some  cases  be- 
ing almost  white,  and  in  others  almost  black.  The  grey- 
ish under  fur,  which  is  about  two-thirds  of  an  inch  deep, 
and  protected  by  stiff  water  hairs  from  two  to  three 
inches  long,  is  shorter  and  denser  on  the  under  part  of 
the  body  than  on  the  top,  forming  a  pelage  that  is  the 
perfection  of  water-proof  covering. 

The  Beavers  are  distinguished  from  other  Rodentia  by 
the  horizontally  flattened  tail,  which  is  nearly  oval  in  form 
and  covered  with  scales.  Beavers  have  five  toes  on  each  foot, 
those  of  the  hinder  ones  being  connected  by  a  membrane; 
and  the  next  toe  to  the  thumb,  on  the  hind  feet,  has  a  double 
and  oblique  nail.  The  four  grinders,  with  their  flat  crowns, 
appear  as  if  formed  of  a  bony  ribbon,  reflected  on  itself, 
so  as  to  show  only  one  sloping  edge  on  the  upper  row  at 
the  internal  border,  and  three  at  the  external  one ;  in  the 
lower  row  it  is  exactly  the  reverse.  As  their  chief  food 
is  hard  bark  and  other  hard  vegetable  substances,  their 
incisors  are  very  powerful,  and  as  they  are  worn  away 
at  the  points,  grow  again  rapidly  from  the  roots.  It  is 
with  these  teeth  that  they  cut  down  trees  of  every  size 
anji  description. 

Before  the  advance  of  civilization  had  restricted  its  hab- 
itat, and  reduced  its  numerical  strength,  there  were  mil- 
lions of  Beavers  on  this  continent  where  there  are  thousands 
today.  They  not  only  furnished  man  with  covering  for 
his  body,  and  food  for  his  nourishment,  but  they  were  the 
principal  source  of  his  wealth ;  but  instead  of  working  for 
the  conservation  of  this  important  contributor  to  his  com- 
fort and  prosperity,  man  has  used  so  little  judgment  in 
hunting  the  Beaver  that  it  is  almost  exterminated. 

The  Beaver,  at  one  time,  inhabited  the  greater  part  of 
North  America,  and  some  are  still  found  in  New  York 
and  Maine;  but  every  year  they  are  getting  scarcer  in 
the  country  east  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  north  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  Their  range,  which  at  one  time  extended 
farther  north  than  that  of  most  other  fur  bearing  animals, 
is  being  constantly  cut  down  ;  and  even  in  Alaska,  where  the 


■^ 


The  Beaver.  281 

animals  were  once  numerous^  they  have  greatly  decreased 
in  numbers.  The  Beavers  inhabiting  Oregon,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  are  of  a  very  light  color,  almost  white  ; 
those  found  in  the  Southern  States,  Mexico  and  Arizona, 
are  poor  in  quality,  being  heavy  in  pelt,  and  pale  in  color. 
The  skins  most  valued,  are  those  with  a  dark  reddish 
brown  hue  found  in  the  Hudson  Bay  country,  in  the 
Fort  York  district,  and  along  the  Moose  River. 

Beavers  are  also  found  in  Europe,  where  they  burrow 
along  the  banks  of  the  Rhone,  the  Danube,  the  Weiser 
and  other  rivers.  Scientists  are  somewhat  divided  in 
opinion  because  of  the  difference  in  their  habits  as  to 
whether  the  European  beavers  belong  to  a  distinct  species, 
or  are  prevented  by  the  closer  vicinage  of  man,  from 
building  their  houses  like  the  American  Beaver. 

At  one  time,  most  of  the  Beaver  skins  were  sold  to  the 
manufacturers  of  silk  hats,  commonly  called  "beavers"; 
who  first  washed  the  skins  to  remove  the  grease,  then  re- 
moved the  long  top  hairs ;  after  which  the  under  fur  was 
cut  off  the  pelt  hy  machinery,  and  blown  to  remove  the 
coarser  hairs,  before  it  was  worked  oii  the  nap  of  the 
hat  and  dyed.  Today  the  majority  of  skins  taken  go  to 
the  furriers,  who  use  most  of  them,  with  the  long  top  or 
water  hairs  removed,  for  making  muffs  and  neck  pieces 
for  women;  cuffs,  coat  facings  and.  gloves  for  men;  and 
for  trimmings.  Some  skins  are  dyed  black  or  seal  brown, 
either  with  or  without  the  long  water  hairs.  The  dark 
skins  are  sometimes  made  to  imitate  the  sea  otter  fur  by 
being  pointed  with  white  hairs. 

Skin  for  skin,  there  are  other  furs  that  will  bring  more 
dollars  than  the  Beaver ;  but  none  that  are  so  well  known 
in  commerce,  or  that  have  such  a  staple  value.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  fur  trade  on  this  continent,  the  beaver 
skin  was  the  basis  by  which  not  only  the  value  of  other 
skins,  but  of  all  other  commodities,  was  determined.  A 
beaver  skin  was  worth  so  many  muskrats,  and  it  took  so 
many  beavers  to  buy  a  sable  or  an  otter  skin.  People  paid 
their  bills  with  Beaver  skins  and  estimated  the  value  of 
their  possessions,  by  the  number  of  Beavers  they  represent- 
ed. To  illustrate  the  way  trades  were  made  at  this  time,  we 
reproduce  here  a  schedule  showing  the  value,  in  beaver 
skins,  of  some  of  the  various  articles  traded  to  the  Indians, 


282  RODENTIA. 

by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1670;  other  skins  being 
taken  upon  the  basis  of  their  relative  value  to  the  Beaver. 

Guns Twelve  winter  beaver  skins  for  the  largest 

Guns Ten  winter  beaver  skins  for  the  smallest 

Powder • One  Beaver  for  %  lb. 

Shot One  Beaver  for  4  lbs. 

Hatchets One  Beaver  for  a  great  and  little  one. 

Knives  .  .  One  Beaver  for  8  great  knives  and  8  jack  knives. 

Beads  One  Beaver  for  %  lb.  of  beads. 

Laced  Coats Six  Beavers  for  one 

Plain  Coats Five  Beavers  for  one  plain  red  coat. 

Coats  for  women,  laced,  2  yards Six  Beavers. 

Coats  for  women,  plain Five  Beavers. 

Tobacco One  Beaver  for  one  pound. 

Powder-horn  ....  One  Beaver  for  a  large  pow^der  horn 

and  two  small  ones. 

Kettles One  Beaver  Skin  for  a  1  lb.  kettle. 

Looking  glass  and  comb Two  Beaver  Skins. 

It  is  said,  that  in  the  early  days,  the  fur  traders  in  re- 
mote regions  where  they  had  no  competition  would  stand 
a  gun  on  end  on  the  floor,  and  hold  it  in  that  position, 
while  the  Indians  laid  one  Beaver  on  top  of  the  other, 
until  the  pile  received  in  exchange  for  the  weapon  was 
as  high  as  the  length  of  the  gun,,  but  we  can  find  no  one 
to  vouch  for  the  truth  of  this  statement. 

The  Beaver  is  not  prized  alone  for  its  skin  value.  The 
castorium,  a  secretion  resembling  sealing  wax,  found  in 
two  glands  situated  in  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  of 
both  the  male  and  female  of  this  species,  also  has  a  com- 
mercial value;  thousands  of  pounds  being  sold  annually. 
The  flesh  of  the  animal  is  good  eating;  the  tail  of  the 
Beaver  being  considered  the  greatest  delicacy  on  the 
board  at  the  banquets  of  the  old  fur-trading  companies. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  double  claw  on  the 
hind  foot  of  the  Beaver.  The  simply  statement  unex- 
plained is  misleading,  as  it  naturally  suggests  to  the  mind 
a  split  claw,  or  two  similar  claws  one  above  the  other. 
By  referring  to  the  accompanying  cuts  the  reader  will 
see,  that  while  the  upper  claw  on  the  next  to  the  last 
toe  on  the  hind  foot  is  smaller,  it  is  otherwise  like  the 
claws  on  the  other  toes.  The  claw  beneath  it  and 
which  it  protects  is  a  thin  blade,  shaped  at  the  end  like 


The  Beaver, 


283 


the  point  of  a  pruning'  knife  or  scalpel.  There  have  been 
many  theories  advanced  as  to  the  use  that  the  beaver 
makes  of  this  blade-like  claw.  It  is  too  thin  to  be  employed 
in  cutting  or  digging ;  and  the  writer  is  inclined  to  agree 
with  the  trappers  and  woodsmen,  who  say  that  this  extra 
claw  is  given  to  the  Beaver  to  remove  the  splinters  that 
get  between  its  teeth  when  cutting  down  trees.  The  shape 
of  this  knife-blade  claw  and  its  location  would  seem  to 
prove  that  it  is  indeed  ''the  Beaver's  toothpick." 

It  is  strange  that  such  an  important  structural  peculiar- 
ity should  have  been  overlooked,  or  ignored,  by  nearly 
all  the  scientists,  and  others,  who  have  written  about  this 
wonderfully  intelligent  and  interesting  animal.  The  few 
who  have  noticed  it  at  all,  merely  say,  "The  Beaver  has  a 
double  claw  on  the  next  to  the  last  toe  on  the  hind  foot." 


The  Beaver's  Toothpick 


284  RODENTIA. 


THE  CHINCHILLA. 


The  Chinchilla  is  the  most  valuable  and  beautiful  of  all 
the  rodentia.  It  is  found  only  in  a  limited  area  in  South 
America,  where  it  lives  in  burrows  among  the  loose  rocks, 
coming  out  to  feed  in  the  early  morning,  and  towards  sun- 
set. The  Chinchillas  often  travel  considerable  distances 
in  search  of  their  food,  which  consists  entirely  of  roots 
and  grasses  and  other  vegetable  matter,  for  which  their 
strong,  sharp  incisors  are  well  adapted.  When  eating  they 
sit  on  their  haunches,  holding  their  food  in  their  fore 
paws.  They  are  very  prolific,  the  female  producing  five 
or  six  young  twice  a  year.  The  skin  is  light  and  thin,  and 
th^  animal,  which  somewhat  resembles  the  rabbit  in  the 
formation  of  its  head  and  its  long,  broad  ears,  will  measure 
from  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  long 
bushy  tail.  It  is  covered  with  a  dense,  soft,  lustrous,  silky 
fur,  nearly  an  inch  long  on  the  back  of  the  finest  skins, 
which  come  from  the  mountainous  districts  near  Arica.  On 
the  sides  the  fur  is  somewhat  longer  and  thinner.  The 
color  is  a  delicate  French  grey,  darkly  mottled  on  the 
surface,  with  a  bluish  slate  tint  beneath. 

The  skins  incorrectly  named  and  known  to  the  trade  as 
''Bastard  Chinchillas"  (Ohinchilla-lanigera),  come  from 
the  La  Plata  Valley,  and  owing  to  the  lower  altitude  and 
warmer  climate  of  their  habitat,  are  smaller  than  the 
''Arica"  skins,  and  have  a  shorter  and  less  beautiful  fur, 
that  is  idarker  underneath  and  not  so  clear  one  top. 
This  species  is  more  abundant  than  any  of  the  others. 

The  Peruvian,  Bolivian  and  Chilian  Chinchillas,  which 
have  shorter  ears  and  tails  than  the  other  species ;  all  belong 
to  the  same  genus  and  species  (Chinchilla-brevicaudata), 
but  the  skins  of  the  Chilian  Chinchillas  are  larger  and  not 
quite  so  choice  as  those  of  the  other  two  varieties.  The 
Chinchillone  (Largotis-cuvieri),  whose  principal  habitat 
is  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  but  which  ranges  as  far 
south  as  Patagonia,  is  larger  than  any  of  the  foregoing 
species,  and  by  some  is  supposed  to  be  a  cross  between  the 
rabbit  and  the  chinchilla.  The  Largotis  is  yellower  and 
dingier  than  the  other  Chinchillas,  and  the  fur,  while  long 
and  fine,  is  rather  ragged. 


The  Chinchilla  Family.  285 

The  fur  of  the  Chinchilla  was  prized  by  the  ancient 
Peruvians,  who  made  coverings  and  other  articles  out  of  it. 
It  has  always  been  in  favor,  but  at  present  the  price  is  so 
high  for  fine  skins,  and  even  those  of  inferior  grades,  that 
Chinchilla  furs  are  not  seen  as  much  as  they  were  a  quarter 
of  a  centur}^  ago  when  ''Bastard"  Chinchillas  sold  for 
from  ten  dollars  to  twenty  dollars  per  dozen ;  and  the  finest 
of  "real"  Chinchillas,  as  the  (Chinchilla-brevicaudata) 
were  called,  could  be  bought  for  thirteen  dollars  each ;  and 
three  dollars  was  a  high  price  for  a  fair  "  Chinchillone. " 
Now  the  prices  are  fifty  to  eighty  dollars  and  upwards  per 
dozen  for  the  "Bastards,"  seven  to  fifteen  dollars  each  for 
Chinchillones,  and  from  fifty  dollars  upwards  for  real  Chin- 
chillas, extra  fine  skins  bringing  as  high  as  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars  each.  This  makes  the  fur  of  the  Chinchilla, 
when  the  size  of  its  working  surface  is  considered,  as 
expensive  as  that  of  the  Russian  Sable,  with  which  it 
cannot  compare  in  durability.  The  leather  is  too  light  to  be 
worked  into  fitted  coats,  but  for  loose  wraps,  neck  pieces, 
muffs  and  trimming.  Chinchilla  can  be  used  to  advantage, 
and  makes  up  beautifully. 


Chinchilla 


The  Viscacha  (Largostomus-trichodactylus)  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  Chinchilla  that  the  Marmot  does  to 
the  Squirrel.  It  is  a  stout  animal  about  two  feet  long 
with  a  ten  inch  bushy  tufted  tail.  Its  burrows  dot  the 
grounds  of  the  pampas  of  Argentina,  w^here  these  ani- 
mals live  in  villages  of  about  fifteen  burrows,  each  con- 
taining about  twenty  members.  In  color  the  Viscacha  is 
grey  on  the  back,  mottled  with  darker  shades,  and  a 
yellowish  white  on  the  under  parts.  It  has  strong  gnaw- 
ing teeth  and  lives  on  roots. 


286  The  Rodentia. 


THE  RODENTIA. 

•  The  Rodentia  is  the  largest  order  of  the  IMammalia  in 
the  number  of  species  and  individuals,  and  also  the  most 
widely  distributed.  Most  of  the  rodents  are  land  animals, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  them  live  in  colonies  in  subter- 
ranean burrows  of  their  own  construction;  some,  however, 
like  the  Beaver,  Water  Vole,  Nutria  and  Muskrat,  are  more 
or  less  aquatic,  and  others  like  the  Squirrels  lead  arboreal 
lives.  In  speaking  of  distinguishing  characteristics, 
Lydecker  says : 

"The  Rodents  are  some  of  the  most  easily  defined 
of  all  mammals  and  are  best  characterized  by  the  number 
and  nature  of  their  teeth — especially  those  in  the  front  of 
the  jaws.  They  are  distinguished  by  the  presence  in  each 
jaw  of  a  pair  of  large  chisel-like  front  or  incisor  teeth, 
which  grow  continuously  throughout  the  life  of  their 
owners.  As  a  rule,  no  other  incisor  teeth,  save  these  two 
pairs,  are  developed,  but  in  the  hares  and  rabbits  and  their 
allies  a  second  smaller  pair  occur  behind  those  of  the  up- 
per jaw.  There  are  no  tusks  or  canine  teeth  in  either  jaw, 
and  in  the  cheek-series  the  number  of  premolars  is  always 
reduced  below  the  normal  four,  very  generally  only  one 
of  these  teeth  being  present,  while  in  some  cases  even  this 
may  be  wanting.  In  consequence  of  the  reduced  number 
of  incisor  teeth,  coupled  with  the  absence  of  canines  and 
the  reduction  in  the  premolars,  the  skull  of  a  Rodent  is 
always  distinguished  by  the  presence  of  a  long  gap  be- 
tween the  front  and  the  cheek-teeth.  Indeed,  the  presence 
in  all  Rodents  of  only  a  single  pair  of  chisel-shaped  and 
permanently-growing  lower  incisors,  opposed  to  a  corre- 
sponding pair  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  total  absence  of 
canines,  the  long  gap  between  the  incisors  and  the  cheek- 
teeth, and  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  the  premolars, 
are  of  themselves  sufficient  to  distinguish  the  Rodent  order 
from  all  other  mammals,  with  the  exception  of  the  aye-aye 
among  the  lemurs. 

''Among  other  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  group, 
the  following  may  be  mentioned.  The  feet  are  usually  fur- 
nished with  five  toes,  which  generally  terminate  in  sharp- 


RODENTIA.  287 

claws,  although  they  sometimes  have  broad  nails.  Either 
the  whole  or  the  greater  part  of  the  sole  of  the  foot  is 
applied  to  the  ground  in  walking,  so  that  these  animals 
may  be  described  as  entirely  or  partially  plantigrade. 
Their  skulls  are  characterized  by  the  condyle  of  the  lower' 
jaw  being  elongated  from  front  to  back  instead  of  from 
side  to  side,  and  thus  permitting  of  that  backwards-and- 
forwards  motion  of  the  lower  upon  the  upper  jaw,  which 
is  so  noticeable  when  we  watch  a  rabbit  feeding ;  this  char- 
acter serving  to  distinguish  Rodents  alike  from  Ungulates 
and  from  Carnivores. 

''The  Rodents  present  a  peculiarity  in  the  structure 
of  the  mouth,  which  is  quite  unknown  in  any  other  mam- 
mals. In  examining  the  mouth  of  any  one  of  these  animals 
— say  a  rabbit — it  will  be  found  that  behind  the  upper 
front  teeth  the  outer  hairy  skin  of  the  face  is  continued 
inwards  into  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  which  by  this  means 
is  divided  into  tw^o  distinct  chambers,  communicating  with 
one  another  through  a  comparatively  narrow  orifice;  the 
first  chamber  containing  only  the  front  teeth,  while  the 
,cheek  teeth  are  included  in  the  second  chamber.  It  ap- 
pears that  this  arrangement  is  designed  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  extraneous  substances  into  the  true  cavity  of  the 
mouth  when  the  creatures  are  engaged  in  their  character- 
istic operation  of  gnawing.  In  addition  to  this  peculiarity, 
the  whole  of  the  inside  of  the  cheeks  in  the  hares  and  rab- 
bits is  covered  with  hair;  while  the  pouched  rats  and 
hamsters  have  large  pouches  inside  the  cheeks,  which  are 
also  lined  with  hairy  skin.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gophers 
have  pouches  in  the  cheeks  which  open  externally  instead 
of  internally. 

''Rodents  are  almost  entirely  herbivorous  in  their 
habits;  and  they  all  of  them  obtain  their  food  by  gnaw- 
ing. The  hares  are  among  the  fleetest  runners  of  all  mam- 
mals, while  the  jerboas  and  chinchillas  are  distinguished 
by  their  leaping  powers.  Rodents  are  mostly  harmless 
and  inoffensive  creatures,  fleeing  with  the  greatest  terror 
and  precipitancy  from  the  smallest  of  foes ;  but  a  few,  like 
the  common  rat,  when  driven  to  bay,  will  defend  them- 
selves desperately,  and  will  then  inflict  comparatively  se- 
vere bites  with  their  powerful  front-teeth. 


288  RODENTIA. 

''Rodents  as  a  whole  are  characterized  by  their  dull 
and  frequently  uniform  coloration,  although  there  are 
many  exceptions  to  this.  Indeed,  many  of  the  squirrels 
from  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  species  of  marmot,  are  among  the  most  brilliantly  col- 
ored of  all  animals.  In  the  brighter-colored  forms  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  plan  of 
coloration.  Thus  while  in  many  of  the  squirrels  the  bril- 
liant colors  take  the  form  of  distinct  patches,  distributed 
over  various  parts  of  the  body,  in  the  palm-squirrels  and 
ground-squirrels  there  are  light  longitudinal  stripes  on  a 
dark  ground,  and  in  the  pacas  there  are  light-colored 
spots.  It  appears,  however,  that  no  Rodent  exhibits  trans- 
verse bars  of  different  colors  on  the  body,  and  in  none  is 
the  tail  ornamented  with  alternate  light  and  dark  rings." 

With  the  exception  of  the  Beaver,  Chinchilla  and 
Viscacha,  which  have  been  considered  in  the  preceding 
chapters,  all  the  Rodents  belong  either  to  the  Hare  or 
Squirrel  families ;  or  to  the  Rat  tribe,  which  comprises  all 
the  different  families  into  which  the  mice  and  rats  have 
been  divided  by  the  scientists. 


The  Hare  Family.  289 


HARES  (LEPORIDAE). 

The  Hares  are  distinguished  by  their  elongated  hind 
limbs,  short  recurved  tails,  long  ears,  imperfect  collar- 
bones, and  large  full  eyes  devoid  of  eyelids. 

The  frontal  region  of  the  skull  is  very  narrow  in  all 
species  of  the  Leporidae,  and  they  have  three  pairs  of 
premolar  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  two  in  the  lower  jaw. 
With  the  exception  of  one  species,  all  the  members  of 
this  family  are  very  much  alike  in  appearance  and  color- 
ization,  the  upper  parts  usually  being  a  mixture  of  grey  and 
reddish  brown,  in  which  the  grey  or  red  predominates  to 
harmonize  with  the  general  appearance  of  the  habitat  of 
the  species. 

With  the  exception  of  Australia,  native  hares  are 
found  in  every  part  of  the  globe,  although  most  of  the 
species  are  confined  to  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The 
Brazilian  Hare  is  the  only  member  of  the  family  found 
in  South  America.  With  the  exception  of  the  Rabbit  and 
the  Hispid  Hare  of  Northern  India,  all  species  of  Hares 
dwell  in  the  open  country  in  the  grass  and  herbage  or 
among  the  rocks  and  bushes. 

Richard  Ly decker  says:  ''Hares  are  solitary;  and 
each  inhabits  a  particular  spot  known  as  its  form;  such 
form  being  a  flattened  resting-place  among  grass  or 
bushes,  or  merely  the  sheltered  side  of  some  rock  or  stone. 
A  hare  will  return  to  its  form,  as  a  rule,  day  by 
day,  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year;  but  the  situa- 
tion is  changed  periodically.  Hares  are  mainly  nocturnal, 
going  forth  at  evening  in  quest  of  food,  and  not  returning 
to  their  forms  till  after  sunrise.  Their  speed  is  great; 
but,  owing  to  the  great  relative  length  of  their  hind- 
limbs,  they  are  better  adapted  for  running  uphill  than 
down.  All  the  members  of  the  genus  are  remarkable  for 
their  extreme  timidity,  and  their  long  ears  are  admirably 
adapted  to  collect  the  least  sound,  and  thus  to  give  the 
earliest  possible  notice  of  danger.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  ears  are  shortest  and  the  legs  are  less  elongated  in 
the  rabbit  and  the  hispid  hare  than  the  other  species.  Both 
of  these  dwell  in  burrows,  and  have  not,  therefore,  such 


290  The  Rodentia. 

need  of  protecting  themselves  by  acuteness  of  hearing  and 
extreme  speed.  All  the  members  of  the  family  breed  with 
great  rapidity;  the  young  being  able  to  reproduce  their 
kind  within  about  six  months  after  birth.  AVhereas,  how- 
ever, the  young  of  the  true  hares  are  born  fully  clothed 
with  hair  and  with  their  eyes  open,  those  of  the  rabbit 
and  probably  also  of  the  hispid  hare,  come  into  the  world 
blind  and  naked." 

The  Common  Hare  (Lepus-europaeus)  is  from  two  to 
three  feet  long,  and  weighs  from  seven  to  eight  pounds. 
The  highly  developed  teeth  are  placed  in  a  circular 
socket  in  the  skull  and  the  upper  lip  is  divided.  The 
under  fur  is  of  a  whitish  hue,  but  the  general  color  of 
the  full  pelage  which  is  white  on  the  belly  and  yellowish 
on  the  cheeks,  is  a  warm  brownish  grey  on  the  top. 
In  the  winter  the  sides,  ears,  cheeks  and  haunches  become 
white  like  the  belly,  and  in  very  severe  seasons  and  in 
the  more  northern  climates  the  grey  gradually  disap- 
pears entirely.  The  average  life  of  a  Hare  is  said  to  be 
from  six  to  seven  years.  They  pair  in  March  and  the 
young  are  generally  produced,  one  to  five  to  a  birth, 
in  May  or  June,  but  in  some  cases  the  period  of  develop- 
ment is  less  and  in  others  greater  than  the  average. 
The  short  thick  fur  of  this  species  is  at  its  best  in 
January  and  February,  and  is  not  only  used  to  some 
extent  by  the  furriers,  but  also  by  the  fur-cutters  who 
remove  it  from  the  pelt  and  use  it  for  felting.  IMillions 
of  these  animals  are  killed  every  year,  being  valued  for 
their  flesh  as  well  as  their  pelts. 

The  Polar  or  White  Hare  (Lepus-glacialis)  is  really 
a  variety  of  the  Common  Hare,  although  it  is  longer 
and  has  the  feet  well  padded  to  protect  it  from  the 
snow.  The  Polar  Hare  inhabits  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula and  the  extreme  northern  regions  of  both  Hemi- 
spheres, showing  considerable  variation  in  character  and 
numbers  in  different  localities.  This  species  is  grey  in 
summer,  becoming  pure  white  in  winter,  except  for  the 
black  tips  on  the  ears.  Most  of  the  millions  of  skins 
that  find  their  way  into  the  channels  of  trade  annually 
come  from  Russia   and   Siberia;  and  are  worked  up  in 


The  Hares  xVnd  Rabbits.  291 

their  natural  color  or  dyed  any  hue  from  a  black  to  the 
most  delicate  shades  of  blue  and  pink  or  the  brightest 
red  and  yellow. 

The  American  Hare  (Lepus-americanus)  which  is 
closely  allied  to  the  varying  hare  of  Scotland,  is  a  much 
smaller  animal,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  long, 
and  the  skins  are  used  principally  for  cutting,  although 
some  of  the  winter  skins  are  dyed  and  worked  up  by 
the  furriers.  Like  the  European  species  its  flesh  is 
excellent  eating.  In  the  summer  the  pelage  of  the 
American  Hare  is  brown  like  that  of  the  English  variety 
of  the  European  species,  but  the  under  fur  is  blue  instead 
of  white.  Dr.  Richardson  says:  "The  American  Hare 
does  not  burrow.  In  the  northern  districts  it  resides 
mostly  in  willow  thickets,  or  in  woods  where  the  willows 
or  dwarf  birch  constitute  much  of  the  underbrush.  The 
bark  of  the  willow  forms  a  great  part  of  its  food  in  winter, 
but  in  summer  it  eats  grass  and  other  vegetables.  It  is 
reported  to  do  much  damage  in  cultivated  districts 
to  fields  of  cabbage  or  turnips." 

The  Rabbit  (Lepus-cuniculus)  is  the  best  fur  producer 
of  the  Leporidae  family,  the  pelt  of  most  of  the  tame 
varieties  being  heavier,  and  the  fur  stronger  and  less 
liable  to  shed  than  that  of  the  parchment  skinned  Hares. 
The  European  Rabbit  is  the  most  important  representative 
of  the  family,  and  is  the  original  of  all  species  of  wild 
and  domestic  breeds  of  rabbits  existing  in  the  world 
today. 

Rabbits  do  not  occupy  forms,  but  in  the  wild  state  live 
in  burrows  from  three  to  six  feet  deep,  generally  excavated 
in  sand  or  loose  dry  soil.  They  avoid  wet  and  marshy 
districts,  and  even  at  the  seaside  seek  elevated  positions 
on  the  cliffs  or  among  the  rocks.  They  are  not  nocturnal 
but  inclined  to  avoid  the  scorching  heat  of  the  sun.  They 
are  sometimes  carnivorous,  but  feed  mostly  on  vegetable 
food  and  ravas-e  corn  fields  and  hop  gardens.  They  are 
extremely  prolific,  producing  from  four  to  six  young,  and 
sometimes  more,  five  or  six  times  a  year.  The  female  is  said 
to  line  her  nest  with  fur  from  her  own  body.  The  fur  of 
wild   Rabbits   is   used   chieflv   for   felting   or  hat   making, 


292  The  Rodentia. 

England  at  one  time  importing  for  this  purpose  from 
Australia,  the  enormous  quantity  of  from  15,000,000  to 
20,000,000  skins,  although  wild  Rabbits  were  first  intro- 
duced into  the  Australian  colonies,  where  they  soon  became 
a  pest,  about  fifty  years  ago. 

The  skins  of  tame  French  and  Belgian  Rabbits  or 
Conies,  which  are  raised  in  warrens  or  hutches,  are  in 
great  demand,  because  of  the  superior  quality  of  their  fur 
and  leather,  and  millions  of  them  are  used  by  furriers  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  every  year  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes. 

Most  of  the  skins  are  dyed  brown  or  black  before  being 
marketed,  and  are  clipped  or  have  the  long  hairs  removed 
before  they  are  dyed  so  that  they  make  an  excellent  imita- 
tion of  seal  skin.  The  blue  and  white  skins  are  generally 
sold  in  their  natural  color,  either  full  haired  or  sheared, 
the  latter  often  being  used  to  make  an  imitation  of  Ermine. 

The  Belgian  skins  are  about  the  same  quality  as  the 
German.  The  French  skins  are  of  a  higher  grade,  espe- 
cially the  large  silver  conies  in  which  the  dense  blue 
underfur  is  covered  with  white  and  silver  grey  hairs. 
French  dyed  skins  are  darker  at  the  roots  than  the  Eng- 
lish and  Belgian.  They  are  assorted  according  to  size  as 
X,  XX  and  XXX,  and  bundled  in  dozens.  An  original 
case  contains  one  hundred  dozen  skins.  In  smaller  quan- 
tities they  are  sold  in  ''sets"  of  four  dozen,  made  up  of 
one  dozen  X,  two  dozen  XX  and  one  dozen  XXX.  The 
Belgian  skins  are  sorted  as  XX,  XXX  and  XXXX. 


The  Coypu  Rat.  293 


NUTRIA  OR  COYPU  RAT. 

The  Coypu  Rat  (Myopotanuis-eoypus),  generally 
known  in  commerce  as  "Nutria,"  which  is  the  proper 
Spanish  name  for  Otter,  is  sometimes  called  the  South 
American  Beaver,  because  it  is  an  aquatic  animal  some- 
what like  the  Beaver  in  appearance  and  habits,  swimming 
Skud  diving  with  ease,  and  making  its  burrows  in  the 
banks  of  lakes  and  rivers  it  frequents,  or  where  the  banks 
are  low  building  a  nest  on  a  platform  in  the  reeds.  It 
belongs,  however,  to  the  Rat  family,  of  which  it  is  the 
largest  representative,  being  about  two  feet  long,  ex- 
clusive of  the  tail  which  measures  from  nine  to  ten  inches. 

The  Coypu  Rat  is  found  only  in  South  America.  It  ranges 
south  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes  from  Chili  and  Peru,  being 
most  abundant  in  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  Republic.  Like 
the  Beaver,  it  has  a  close,  dense  under-fur,  protected  by  a 
covering  of  water  hairs  about  three  inches  long.  The 
tail  is  scaly,  but  has  a  thin  covering  of  short  hairs.  Each 
of  the  feet  have  five  toes,  those  on  the  hind  limbs  being 
connected  by  a  web.  It  is  characterized  by  the  very  large 
size  of  its  incisor  teeth,  and  by  the  upper  molars  having 
two  folds  of  enamel  on  each  side,  while  the  lower  ones 
have  only  one  external  and  three  internal  folds.  It  is 
very  prolific,  bringing  forth  six  or  eight  young  at  a  time. 
The  annual  collection  for  years  ranged  ft-om  three  hundred 
thousand  to  five  hundred  thousand  skins. 

The  general  color  of  the  Coypu  Rat  is  a  speckled  yel- 
lowish brown,  but  many  are  light  brown  in  color  all  over, 
and  some  are  nearly  w^hite,  while  others  are  almost  black 
on  the  back.  The  best  way  to  flay  this  animal  is  by  cut- 
ting it  up  the  back  so  as  to  preserve  in  one  piece  the  good 
short  under  fur  on  the  belly. 

At  one  time  this  fur  w^as  used  only  for  "cutting, "that 
is  for  making  hats;  but  when  dehaired,  the  under-fur 
can  be  dyed  to  make  one  of  the  finest  appearing  substi- 
tutes for  seal  skin,  and  in  this  way  it  was  for  many  years 
used  by  furriers  in  the  manufacture  of  muffs,  neck  pieces, 
coats,  and  sleigh  robes.  It  lost  its  hold  on  popular 
favor  because  the  fur  is  inclined  to  curl  or  crinkle  when 


294  RODENTIA. 

it  has  been  worn  for  a  year  or  two,  causing  it  to  lose 
the  smooth,  silky  appearance  which  makes  it  attractive. 
The  Nutria  skins  in  their  natural  state  are  worth  from 
two  and  one-half  to  eight  dollars  each ;  and  when  plucked 
and  seal  dyed,  from  three  and  a  half  to  ten  dollars  each, 
according  to  quality  and  the  quantity  purchased. 


The  Mouse  and  Rat  Tribe.  295 


THE  MURIDAE. 

The  largest  family  of  Rodents  is  the  Muridae,  which 
includes  many  species  of  different  genera  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Because  of  varying  external  characteristics 
they  have  been  divided  by  some  scientists  into  ten  sub- 
families, but  nearly  all  the  representatives  of  this  group 
have  two  incisors  above  and  three  below,  rooted  in  some, 
and  rootless  in  others;  and  either  tuberculate  or  flat 
crowned,  with  angular  enamel  folds. 

The  Hamster  is  a  stout  little  animal  of  the  sub-family 
Cricetinae  of  the  Muridae,  that  is  found  in  parts 
of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  about  ten  inches  long,  has  a 
short  sparsely  haired  tail,  and  the  cheek  pouches  which 
distinguish  all  the  Cricetinae.  It  is  very  prolific  and  breeds 
readily  in  confinement,  but  the  fur,  although  beautifully 
marked  in  orange,  black  and  white  colorings,  is  too  short 
and  coarse  to  warrant  its  being  used  for  any  other  purpose 
than  coat  and  cloak  linings,  and  it  is  not  very  desirable 
even  for  this  purpose  as  the  pelt  is  too  light  to  wear  well. 
The  Hamster  burrows  deeply  in  the  ground,  stores  its 
galleries  with  grain  in  the  fall  and  summer,  and  hibernates 
during  the  winter,  waking  up  occasionally  to  feed  from  its 
stores. 

Hamsters  are  most  numerous  in  Germany  and  Austria, 
where  they  cause  great  damage  to  the  crops  by  the  amount 
of  grain  they  consume.  The  cheek  pouches  in  which  they 
convey  their  winter  supplies  to  the  burrows  will  hold 
about  two  ounces  each.  Like  other  Rodents,  the  Hamster 
has  the  power  of  raising  itself  on  its  hind  feet.  The 
ears  are  short  and  nearly  bare,  and  the  incisor  teeth, 
especially  those  of  the  lower  jaw,  are  long.  The  belly  and 
legs  are  black,  but  the  feet  and  the  small  claws  are  white, 
and  there  are  white  patches  on  the  cheeks  and  throat  and 
also  on  the  fore-legs. 

The  European  Lemming  (Myodes-lemmus)  is  very  much 
like  the  Hamster  in  general  color,  being  brownish  grey  on 
the  upper  parts  and  lighter  underneath ;  it  is,  however,  much 
smaller,  only  measuring  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length. 
Its  habitat  is  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  where  at  certain 


296  The  Rodentia. 

seasons  of  the  year  it  is  very  abundant,  moving  from  place 
to  place  in  hordes  of  thousands,  destroying  the  vegeta- 
tion in  its  path  until  stopped  by  the  sea  or  some  other 
natural  obstacle  to  its  further  progress.  According  to  a 
writer  in  the  Century  Dictionary:  ''so  numerous  are  these 
animals  at  times  and  so  sudden  is  their  appearance  that 
they  are  fabled  to  rain  down  from  the  clouds."  Large 
numbers  of  rapacious  quadrupeds  and  birds  hang  upon 
their  line  of  march,  and  materially  diminish  their  numbers. 

There  is  a  kind  of  false  Lemming  in  British  America, 
and  parts  of  the  United  States  from  Indiana  and  Kansas 
to  Alaska,  but  the  only  true  Lemming  on  the  Western 
Hemisphere  is  the  Hare-tailed  Mouse  (Cuniculus-hudsonius 
or  -torquatus),  a  species  which  turns  snow-white  in  winter, 
and  is  found  only  in  Greenland  and  the  Hudson's  Bay 
regions. 

The  fur  of  the  Lemming  is  of  little  value,  being  used 
only  for  cheap  linings. 

The  Water  Vole  (Avicula-amphibius).  commonly  called 
the  Water  Rat,  whose  habitat  is  in  England  and  France, 
is  a  fur-bearing  animal  although  its  skins  are  not  used  for 
fur  purposes.  It  is  an  aquatic  mammal,  resembling  the 
muskrat  in  form  and  habits,  and  living,  like  the  European 
Beaver,  in  holes  in  the  banks  of  ponds  and  rivers.  It  is 
strictly  vegetarian,  subsisting  on  the  roots  of  plants,  fallen 
apples  and  pears,  and  the  bark  of  trees.  Black  specimens, 
and  also  white  are  sometimes  seen,  but  generally  the 
Water  Vole  has  a  greyish  brown  coat  with  a  blue  under- 
fur  like  that  of  the  muskrat,  which  it  resembles  in  so  many 
ways  that  some  authorities  think  it  may  prove  to  be  the 
same  animal. 

The  Beaver  Rat  (Hydromys-chrysogaster),  sometimes 
called  the  Golden-bellied  Rat,  is  one  of  the  few  Australian 
mammals  which  possess  a  thick  under-fur.  On  the  back 
it  is  very  much  like  the  ordinary  rat  in  color,  but  the  fur 
on  the  belly  is  a  golden  or  light  grey  hue.  like  that  on  the 
muskrat.  The  length  of  the  body  is  about  eight  inches, 
and  the  six  inch  tail  is  very  dark  grey  or  black  in  color, 
except  the  part  nearest  the  top,  which  is  white. 


The  Mouse  Family.  297 


THE  DORMOUSE. 

The  Common  Dormouse  or  Sleep-mouse  (]Muscadinus- 
avellanarius),  whose  soft  fur  may  come  into  favor  with 
the  demand  for  mole  skin,  is  confined  to  Europe,  where 
its  range  extends  from  Norway  and  the  British  Isles  to 
Northern  Italy  and  Turkey.  Galacia,  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania. It  is  arboreal  and  in  some  of  its  other  habits 
like  the  Squirrels,  but  differs  from  them  in  being  ex- 
clusively nocturnal.  It  is  generally  found  in  hedgerows 
or  thickets,  and  hibernates  five  or  six  months  during  the 
winter  in  a  nest  made  of  twigs,  leaves  and  grass.  It 
feeds  on  nuts,  acorns,  corn  and  wild  berries,  and  is  said 
to  extract  the  kernels  from  hazel  nuts  without  removing 
them  from  their  stems. 

The  young  which  are  usually  produced  in  the  spring, 
four  or  five  to  the  litter,  are  born  blind  and  naked,  in  a 
nest  placed  a  yard  or  so  above  the  ground.  There  are 
several  species  of  this  little  animal. 

The  common  Dormouse  is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
mouse,  and  has  a  thick,  compact  body,  with  a  somewhat 
pointed  muzzle  on  the  large  head.  The  tail  is  long  and 
bushy,  and  the  color  of  the  fur  is  a  tawny  hue  on  the 
upper  parts,  but  yellowish  beneath,  with  a  patch  of  white 
on  the  throat  and  upper  part  of  the  chest. 

The  Squirrel  Tail  Dormouse  of  Southern  Europe 
(M.-glis)  is  the  Siebenschlafer  of  the  Germans,  and  the 
loir  of  the  French.  It  is  larger  than  the  conmion  dor- 
mouse, and  has  a  thicker,  bushier  tail;  and  the  heavy 
soft  fur  is  of  an  ashy  grey  color  shaded  with  dark  brown 
above,  and  white  on  the  under  parts  and  inside  of  the 
limbs.  The  tip  of  the  snout  and  part  of  the  throat  are 
white. 

The  Tree  Dormouse  (M-dryas),  found  in  Siberia  as  well 
as  parts  of  Southern  Europe,  is  smaller  in  size  than  the 
foregoing  but  larger  than  the  Garden  Dormouse.  Its 
habitat  extends  into  Africa,  and  it  was  known  by  the 
ancient  Romans  as  Nitela,  and  is  called  lerot  in  France, 
and  the  Gartenschlafer  in  Germany.  The  Painted  Dor- 
mouse of  Eastern  Persia  (M.-pictus)  is  a  brightly  colored 
form  closely  allied  to  the   (M.-dryas). 


298  The  Rodentia. 


THE  MUSKRAT. 


The  Muskrat  or  Musquash  (Fiber-zibethicus),  which 
owes  its  name  to  its  musky  odor,  is  a  stout,  thick-set  ani- 
mal with  a  body  from  eight  to  fifteen  inches  long,  and 
an  eight  to  ten  inch  scaly  tail  that  is  ''compressed 
in  the  horizontal  plane  so  as  to  present  an  upper  and 
under  edge  and  two  broad  sides."  The  compressed  form 
of  the  tail  is  accentuated  by  a  line  of  hairs  on  both  the 
upper  and  lower  edge.  The  unusually  wide  head  is  not 
separated  from  the  body  by  any  clearly  defined  neck,  and 
the  eyes  and  ears  are  small,  the  latter  scarcely  project- 
ing above  the  fur;  with  the  exception  of  a  small  line 
directly  around  the  nostrils,  the  muzzle  is  completely 
covered  with  fur.  The  front  feet,  on  which  the  first  of 
the  five  toes  is  rudimentary,  are  small,  but  the  hind  feet, 
on  which  all  of  the  five  toes  are  fully  developed,  are  large 
and  stout,  with  the  toes  partially  webbed,  and  so  attached 
to  the  leg  that  they  are  well  fitted  for  swimming;  but 
like  the  Beaver,  the  Muskrat  depends  principally  upon 
the  skulling  movement  of  its  large  compressed  tail  to 
propel  it  through  the  water.  The  pelage  consists  of  an 
under  coat  of  soft  dense  grey  fur,  protected  on  the  back 
and  sides  by  long  shiny  smooth  dark  brown  hairs,  making 
the  general  color  grey  beneath,  and  a  deep  brown  above, 
darkest  on  the  middle  of  the  back.  In  some  of  the  animals 
the  hair  coat  is  black,  and  in  this  variety  the  under  fur  is 
also  darker. 

While  resembling  the  Beaver  in  the  character  of  its  fur, 
scaly  tail  and  aquatic  habits,  the  Muskrat,  or  Ondontra, 
is  so  closely  allied  to  the  insect  eating  Desman,  and  In- 
dian Musk-shrew  or  Mongourou,  that  those  animals  are 
respectively  known  as  the  European  and  Indian  Musk- 
rats.  Its  actual  relationships  are  with  the  Lemmings, 
and  the  Water  Vole,  or  Water  Rat,  of  England  and 
France,  whose  skins,  although  it  is  a  fur-bearing  animal, 
are  not  used  for  fur  purposes.  The  Vole  and  the  Musk- 
rat  are  similar  in  general  appearance  and  habits,  and  in 
the  construction  of  the  skull  and  molar  teeth,  but  the 
tail  of  the  Vole  is  considerably  shorter  and  round. 


The  Muskrat.  299 

The  Muskrat  is  not  as  strictly  nocturnal  in  its  habits 
as  the  Beaver,  and  may  often  be  seen  swimming  in  broad 
daylight.  When  leaping  into  the  water  to  dive  it  makes 
a  loud  noise  by  striking  its  flat  tail  against  the  surface. 
The  burrows  of  the  Muskrat  are  long,  inclining  up  the 
bank  for  ten  or  fifteen  feet  before  they  expand  into  a 
chamber  with  numerous  passages,  some  leading  further 
into  the  bank,  and  others  opening  under  the  surface  of 
the  water.  In  some  sections  they  construct  winter  quar- 
ters or  ''muskrat  huts,"  which  Dr.  Merriam  describes 
as  follows: 

' '  The  summit  of  the  structure  is  commonly  high  enough 
out  of  water  to  admit  of  an  air-chamber  within,  which 
communicates  with  the  outside  world  by  means  of  a  hole 
through  the  center  of  the  mass,  the  entrance  or  entrances 
being  under  water.  Many  of  the  houses  contain  no  mud 
or  sticks,  but  consist  wholly  of  balls  and  knots  of  roots 
and  swamp-grasses.  It  seems  clear  that  the  animals  make 
no  attempt  to  construct  a  dwelling  of  any  particular 
shape,  but  merely  heap  the  materials  together  without 
plan  or  order,  the  resulting  mound  naturally  assuming, 
in  a  general  way,  the  form  of  a  flattened  cone.  As  the 
Muskrat  feeds  on  fruits,  vegetables  and  roots,  it  will  be 
observed  the  materials  of  which  the  hut  are  composed 
are  such  as  serve  as  food  for  the  animals  during  the  long 
winters;  hence  the  Muskrat 's  hut  is  in  reality  a  store- 
house, which  he  devours  piecemeal  as  the  winter  ad- 
vances. 

''The  nest  is  usually  placed  in  a  burrow  in  the  bank, 
although  occasionally  in  the  aforesaid  hut.  Here  from 
five  to  nine  blind  and  naked  young  are  produced  at  a 
birth,  and  it  is  reported  that  there  may  be  as  many  as 
three  litters  in  the  course  of  a  season." 

The  Muskrat  is  one  of  the  commonest  quadrupeds  of 
North  America,  living  on  the  banks  of  lakes,  rivers  and 
pools  in  every  part  of  the  continent.  Owing  to  its  nume- 
rical strength  and  the  many  purposes  for  which  its  fur  is 
used  the  Muskrat  is  as  valuable  commercially  as  the  ani- 
mal is  common,  upwards  of  five  million  skins  being  con- 
sumed every  year.  There  are  two  collection  of  skins  an- 
nually, one  in  the  late  fall  and  another  in  the  spring  of 


300 


The  Rodentia. 


the  year.  The  best  skins  are  those  taken  in  December, 
January  and  February  when  the  animal  is  in  full  fur; 
next  in  value  are  the  so-called  winter  skins,  and  the  poorest 
in  quality  are  w^hat  are  known  as  "Fall  Rats."  The  skins 
of  the  very  young  animals  called  ''Kitts"  are  of  little 
value.  The  question  of  locality  enters  largely  into  the 
grading  of  the  skins.  Muskrats  are  generally  taken  in 
traps,  and  most  of  the  skins  come  to  the  market  eased. 


-..:;s^_ 


MUSKRAT 


With  the  exception  of  the  black  skins,  which  are  found 
principally  in  the  southern  part  of  its  habitat  and  are 
always  used  in  their  natural  state,  a  large  part  of  the  Musk- 
rat  skins  are  plucked — that  is,  Ijave  the  long  top  hairs 
removed — and  the  ground  fur  is  dyed  to  make  the  rich 
substitute  for  seal  skin  known  as  "Hudson  Seal."  Some- 
times the  skins  are  blended  with  the  top  hairs  left  on  to 
resemble  the  mink,  when  they  are  sold  as  "River  Mink" 
Most  of  them  are  used  in  their  natural  state  and  color  to 
make  linings  for  coats,  or  in  the  manufacture  of  muffs 
or  other  small  furs,  which  are  sold  as  "Brook  Mink." 


The  Squirrel  Family.  301 


THE  SQUIRREL  FAMILY. 

The  Sciuridae,  or  Squirrel  family,  show  a  wide  range  of 
variation,  passing  from  the  heavy  terrestrial  marmots  or 
ground  hogs,  with  their  short  limbs,  ears  and  tails,  through 
the  Chipmunks,  and  Spermophiles  or  Susliks,  to  the  grace- 
ful arboreal  Tree  Squirrels  with  slender  limbs  and  long 
tails,  and  the  ariel  Flying  Squirrels.  The  family  is  widely 
distributed,  being  represented  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
except  Australia.  True  Scpiirrels  abound  in  the  torrid  as 
Avell  as  the  temperate  zone,  but  the  ground  squirrels  are 
found  only  in  the  temperate  and  colder  latitudes.  The 
center  of  abundance  is  in  Asia.  Africa  also  has  a  long 
list  of  species,  and  .  North  America  tcomes  next,  *being 
especially  rich  in  the  number  and  variety  of  its  ground 
squirrels.  The  eastern  European  and  Asiatic  Marmots 
are  the  most  numerous  and  valuable  commercially.  Only 
a  few  species  of  the  Sciuridae  are  represented  in  Europe 
and  South  America. 

The  range  of  the  Common  Squirrel  (Sciurus-vulgaris), 
which  is  the  type  representative  and  finest  furred  species 
of  the  Tree  Squirrels,  extends  through  Europe  and  into 
Asia.  The  best  skins  come  from  Siberia  and  Russia, 
those  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Ural  ]\Iountains  being 
grey  and  in  some  cases  almost  blue;  the  darkest  skins 
having  the  greatest  value,  if  free  from  the  reddish  cast 
that  shows  in  many  of  the  species  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  and  which  is  characteristic  of  most  North  Ameri- 
can tree  squirrels.  Too  much  dependence,  how^ever,  must 
not  be  placed  upon  colorization  in  deciding  the  geographi- 
cal location  of  a  species,  as  one  variety  of  the  Western 
Continent  is  called  the  Grey  Squirrel. 

All  Tree  Squirrels  have  large  pointed  ears,  long  bushy 
tails,  and  are  able  to  sit  up  on  their  haunches,  and  use 
their  fore-paws  like  hands,  and  the  Common  Squirrel  has 
pencil  tufted  ears  like  the  lynx.  The  bellies  of  this  species 
are  white,  and  the  tail,  which  is  quite  as  long  as  the  ten 
inch  body,  is  very  bushy.  Tree  Squirrels  are  active  and 
agile,  living  in  the  trees,  although  they  often  descend  to  the 
ground  and  run  about  there  and  feed  on  all  kinds  of  nuts 


302  The  Rodentia. 

and  hard  fruits.  They  usually  bring  forth  three  or  four 
young  twice  a  year,  and  hibernate  to  some  extent  in  the 
colder  latitudes.  They  are  easily  tamed  and  make  inter- 
esting and  inquisitive  pets. 

The  American  species  that  approximates  closest  to  the 
Sciurus-vulgaris  is  the  Chickaree  or  Red  Squirrel  (Sciurus- 
hudsonianus),  in  fact  some  naturalists  believe  that  the 
Chickaree,  and  the  American  Grey  Squirrel  (Sciurus- 
carolinensis),  and  the  European  Common  Squirrel  are  all 
geographical  varieties  of  the  same  species,  although  the 
American  species  are  uniform  in  color  all  over  the  body 
while  the  old  world  species  have  white  breasts. 

There  are  many  other  species  or  varieties  of  tree  Squir- 
rels, but  those  that  have  been  mentioned  are  the  most  im- 
portant, and  in  fact  most  of  the  w^orld's  supply  of  squirrel 
skins  for  fur  uses  is  derived  from  the  Sciurus-vulgaris  of 
Russia  and  Siberia,  where  the  animals  have  better  pelts  and 
thicker,  softer  fur  than  those  of  other  regions. 

As  early  as  1839,  2,730,826  squirrel  skins  were  imported 
into  England  alone,  and  at  the  present  time  the  number 
of  skins  used  in  different  parts  of  the  world  is  enormous. 
They  are  worked  up  whole,  or  the  backs  are  cut  out  to 
make  coats,  muffs  and  neck  pieces,  while  the  bellies,  which 
/  are  lighter  furred,  are  used  for  linings.  Many  of  the 
vskins  are  dyed  and  blended  sable  color,  and  others  are 
changed  so  as  to  make  a  good  imitation  of  chinchilla. 

Squirrel  tails  were  formerly  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  string  boas,  and  the  dressed  tails  were 
sold  by  the  hundred.  The  raw  tails  are  sold  by  weight, 
six  to  nine  pounds  being  the  recognized  weight  of  one 
thousand  tails. 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  the  fur  of  the  squirrel,  which 
in  red  in  England,  becomes  grey  as  we  approach  the  east- 
ern part  of  Europe,  and  grows  darker  and  darker  as  we 
journey  further  east,  until  it  almost  reaches  a  black  color 
in  Japan.  The  province  of  Kazan  in  Russia  furnishes  red 
and  reddish  grey  skins,  Viatka  and  Kargopol  skins  are 
greyer,  and  those  from  Obskoi  are  a  clear  grey.  Light 
blue  skins  are  found  in  Yeniseisk,  and  deep  blue  ones  in 
the  valley  of  the  Lena  river.  In  the  provinces  of  Yakutsk, 
Okhotch  and  Sakiminoi  the  color  of  the  body  is  a  very  dark 
blue  and  the  ears  and  tails  are  black. 


The  Squirrel  Family. 


303 


304  The  Rodentia. 

THE  CHIPMUNKS. 

Chipmunks  are  often  called  Rock  Squirrels  because  they 
make  their  nests  in  crannies  in  the  rocks  or  other  places  on 
the  surface,  instead  of  living  in  underground  burrows. 
They  are  closely  allied  to  the  tree  squirrels,  but  they 
are  given  a  separate  genus  because  they  have  pouches 
inside  the  cheeks,  a  slenderer  and  narrower  skull, 
shorter  ears  and  tail,  and  the  first  premolar  tooth  in  the 
upper  jaw  is  either  absent  or  very  minute;  they  are  also 
characterized  by  a  peculiar  coloration,  that  shows  them  to 
be  the  connecting  link  between  the  arboreal  tree  squirrels, 
and  the  ground  squirrels  like  the  susliks  or  spermophiles. 

The  Common  American  Chipmunk  (Tamias-striatus), 
a  small  animal  six  inches  long,  with  a  four-inch  tail,  takes 
its  name  from  an  American  Indian  w^ord  meaning  the 
hacking  or  chipping  squirrel.  Its  range  extends  from 
Canada  and  Manitoba  through  the  eastern  section  of  the 
Ignited  States  into  Georgia  and  western  INlissouri ;  the 
long-eared  Chipmunk  of  California  (Tamias-macrotus),  and 
other  western  varieties,  are  distinguished  from  it  by 
the  greater  length  of  their  ears  and  other  characteristics. 
The  common  Chipmunk  is  sometimes  about  the  size  of  the 
European  squirrel,  and  in  some  localities  has  the  same 
ground  color,  but  is  always  distinguished  by  the  black 
stripe  running  down  the  middle  of  the  back  and  the  white 
stripe  w^th  black  edges  on  each  of  its  sides,  as  well  as  the 
two  white  stripes  separated  by  a  black  one  above  and  be- 
low each  eye.  There  is  considerable  local  variation  in  the 
ground  color,  that  of  the  southern  Chipmunks  being 
much  lighter  than  that  of  those  in  the  northern  portions 
of  their  habitat.  They  are  the  commonest  of  North  Amer- 
ican rodents,  and  are  migratory  in  their  habits,  being 
abundant  in  a  certain  district  one  year  and  entirely  ab- 
sent the  next.  They  feed  principally  on  beech  mast,  but 
also  consume  corn  and  roots  and  the  larvae  of  insects. 
According  to  Dr.  Merriam ;  when  the  beech  nuts  are 
abundant  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  the  Chipmunks 
put  in  an  appearance  in  September,  and  by  October  the 
woods  are  alive  with  them.  ''They  immediately  estab- 
lish themselves  for  the  winter,  and  begin  to  hoard  up 
large  stores  of  food.     They  are  the  least  hardy  of  our 


Ground  Squirrels.  305 

squirrels,  eommoiily  going  into  winter  quarters  before  the 
middle  of  November,  and  though  early  thaws  sometimes 
bring  them  out  in  February,  rnrely  appearing  again  in  any 
numbers  until  the  warm  sun  in  ^larch  or  April  has  caused 
bare  spots  to  appear  between  the  snow  banks. 
In  running  from  tree  to  tree,  even  when  not  pursued,  the 
length  of  their  bound  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-four 
inches — a  long  leap  for  so  small  an  animal."  The  young 
are  born  in  the  spring,  and  live  in  their  nests  until  June; 
and  as  there  is  seldom  a  good  crop  of  beech  nuts  any- 
where two  successive  years  a  migration  generally  begins 
in  July.  The  Chipnmnk  usually  keeps  to  the  ground, 
though  it  will  at  times  run  a  few  feet  up  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  and  when  pursued  may  even  take  refuge  among  the 
branches.     It  does  not  burrow  like   the  spermophiles. 

The  Siberian  ground  squirrel  (Tamias-asiaticus), 
which  is  also  known  as  the  Siberian  Chipmunk,  is  found  in 
northern  Asia  and  extends  into  Russia.  This  species  dif- 
fers from  the  Common  American  Chipmunk  in  that  it  has 
four  light  colored  and  five  black  stripes  on  the  body  and 
has  a  longer  tail.  A  number  of  other  varieties  of  Chip- 
munks are  also  found  in  North  America,  from  the  barren 
grounds  to  New  Mexico  and  Arizona. 

THE  SUSLIK  OR   SPERMOPHILE. 

The  Suslik  or  Sisel  (Spermophilis-citillus),  is  confined 
to  Europe,  Asia  Minor  and  Asia  north  of  the  Himalayas ; 
but  the  North  American  Spermophile,  which  is  never  seen 
on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  continent,  belongs  to  the  same 
genus.  These  animals  have  skulls  like  the  squirrels,  but 
are  characterized  by  large  cheek  pouches,  and  such  dis- 
tinctive coloration  and  markings  that  even  the  striped 
specimens  need  never  be  confounded  with  the  Chipmunk, 
which  is  found  in  nearly  the  same  regions  of  the  North- 
ern Hemisphere.  There  is  considerable  variation  in  the 
size  of  the  ears  and  the  length  of  the  tail,  but  the  first 
toe  on  the  forefoot  is  always  rudimentary  in  all  the 
species  of  the  Spermophilis,  although  a  nail  is  sometimes 
present.  Everman's  Suslik  (Spermophilis-eversmanni)  is 
the  only  Old  World  species  that  has  a  long  tail. 

The  common  Suslik  of  Central  ^nd  eastern  Europe 
and  Siberia,  an  animal  about  the  size  of  the  Euroi)ean 
Squirrel,  is  uniform  in  color,  and  has  a  very  short  tail 


306  The  Rodentia — Suslik  and  Gopher. 

and  minute  ears.  The  long-eared  species  (Spermophilis- 
grammurus),  whose  range  is  on  the  Western  Continent 
from  the  Mississippi  valley  to  California,  has  a  long  bushy 
tail  and  large  tufted  ears.  The  thirteen  lined  or  Leopard 
Spermophile  (Spermophilis-tridecemlineatus),  which  is 
the  commonest  species  in  America,  and  is  found  from  the 
Red  River  to  Texas,  has  small  ears  and  a  tail  about  two- 
thirds  as  long  as  its  eight-inch  body.  In  color  it  is  dark 
reddish  above  with  six  to  eight  longitudinal  light  stripes, 
alternating  with  from  five  to  seven  rows  of  light  spots. 
The  under  parts  are  yellowish  brown  in  the  middle,  bor- 
dered onjhe  sides  with  yellow  and  a  narrow  black  band 
runs  between  the  two  tints. 

All  species  of  Susliks  prefer  the  open  plains  for  their 
burrows,  which  descend  from  six  to  eight  feet,  and  have 
but  a  single  entrance.  When  the  animals  retire  for  their 
winter  sleep  they  make  a  second  passage  from  their  sleep- 
ing chamber,  to  within  a  short  distance  from  the  surface. 
Through  this  they  make  their  exit  when  they  awaken  in 
the  spring,  and  block  up  the  original  entrance. 

The  roots,  seeds  and  berries  for  the  winter's  supply 
of  food  are  accumulated  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  dur- 
ing which  time  the  Susliks  will  also  eat  mice  and  small 
birds  and  their  eggs.  The  young  are  born  in  the  spring, 
from  four  to  eight  to  a  litter. 

The  striped  Spermophiles  of  North  America  are  more 
carnivorous  than  their  European  cousins.  In  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  their  habitat  they  remain  active  all 
winter,  but  the  northern  species  hibernate  during  the  cold 
weather. 

Parry's  Suslik  (Spermophilis-empetra),  a  species  close- 
ly allied  to  Evermann's  Suslik,  is  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hudson  Bay  and  the  Bering  Sea. 

It  is  hard  to  understand  why  the  graceful,  slender,  kindly 
dispositioned  Spermophiles  are  ever  confounded  with  the 
thieving  Pocket  Gophers,  who  belong  to  a  separate  family, 
the  members  of  which  are  all  so  ill  tempered  that  they 
hate  one  another.  Possibly  it  is  because  both  of  these 
animals  make  their  burrows  deep  down  in  the  ground 
below  the  frost  line. 

The  habitat  of  the  Flying  Squirrel  is  more  restricted 
than  that  of  the  other  true  squirrels,  but  there  are  eight 
or  more  species  in  different  parts  of  North  America,  Asia, 
Africa,  Japan  and  the  Malayan  Islands. 


Gbound  Squirrel — Marmot.  307 


THE  MARMOT. 

The  Marmot  is  found  in  America,  Europe  and  Asia ;  and 
is  known  in  some  localities  as  the  bear-mouse,  and  in 
others  as  the  ground-hog  and  woodchuck;  the  Wish-Ton- 
Wish,  or  prairie  dog  of  North  America,  is  not  a  true 
marmot,  but  very  similar  to  it  in  size  and  many  of  its 
habits.  The  Marmot  is  the  largest  living  representative 
of  the  squirrel  family.  It  has  a  stout,  thickset  form,  and 
a  short  bushy  tail.  It  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of 
cheek  pouches,  and  by  the  flat  nail  with  which  the  rudi- 
mentary first  front  toe  is  furnished,  as  well  as  by  certain 
peculiar  features  of  the  skull  and  cheek  teeth. 

The  most  widely  distributed  species  on  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent  is  the  Arctomys-Monax,  called  Weemusk 
by  the  Cree  Indians,  and  known  in  commerce  as  the  Quebec 
Marmot  and  Woodchuck. 

The  Yellow-Bellied  Marmot  (Arctomys-flaviventer),  found 
only  in  the  iRocky  Mountains,  and  the  large  Hoary 
Whistling  Marmot  (Arctomys-pruinosus),  are  not  so  num- 
erous; and  none  of  the  American  species  are  of  much 
value  commercially.  Europe  has  two  species;  the  Alpine 
or  true  Marmot  (Arctomys-marmotta),  and  the  Eastern 
or  Russian  Marmot  (Arctomys-bobac).  Besides  the  Arc- 
tomys-bobac  there  are  numerous  unimportant  varieties  in 
Asia,  one  of  which,  the. Red  Marmot,  is  a  much  larger 
animal  and  has  a  much  longer  tail  than  any  of  the  other 
species. 

The  skins  used  in  commerce  come  principally  from  south- 
ern Russia  and  Siberia,  where  these  animals  exist  in  vast 
numbers,  consuming  the  growing  grain  and  other  crops, 
and  annoying  the  farmers  with  the  large  hillocks  they 
throw  up  in  making  their  burrows.  The  burrows  often 
descend  to  a  depth  of  from  seven  to  ten  feet,  and  besides 
the  main  entrance  have  another  opening  to  be  used  as  an 
avenue  of  escape  in  case  of  emergency.  Each  burrow  is 
tenanted  by  a  family  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  members,  but 
there  are  always  large  colonies  where  these  animals  collect, 
either  in  the  mountains  or  on  the  plains  in  the  north. 


308  RODENTIA, 

In  the  winter  when  the  snow  comes  the  Marmots  retire 
to  their  burrows  and  hibernate.  According  to  some  author- 
ities the  Russian  ]\rarmots  lay  in  a  supply  of  food  before 
the  winter  begins,  but  others  claim  that  they  are  not  known 
to  lay  in  any  store  of  food  before  their  retirement,  and 
that  their  sleep  is  probably  unbroken  from  the  time  they 
begin  to  hibernate  in  October  until  they  come  out  in  the 
spring.  If  either  of  these  statements  are  accepted  as  true, 
the  Russian  Marmot  differs  in  this  respect  from  the  Ameri- 
can Woodchuck,  which  causes  so  much  trouble  by  coming 
out  of  its  hole  on  Candlemas  Day  to  look  for  its  shadow, 
no  matter  how  much  snow  there  may  be  on  the  ground. 

Marmots  are  all  terrestial  and  fossorial,  and  some  of  the 
habits  that  the  Russian  Marmot  is  said  to  have  in  common 
with  the  North  American  Prairie  Dog  are  sitting  on  its 
haunches,  whistling,  etc.  The  Russian  Marmot  is  about 
the  size  of  a  rabbit  and  has  a  greyish  yellow  fur  that 
is  browner  on  the  head  than  on  the  body,  and  darker  at 
the  roots  than  at  the  tips.  It  feeds  on  roots,  leaves  and 
insects,  and  is  very  prolific,  often  producing  nine  young  in  a 
litter.  It  can  be  domesticated,  and  taught  to  feed  on 
carrots,  cabbaojes  and  other  vegetables. 


KussiAN  Marmot 

The  skins  are  used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  either 
in  their  natural  state  or  dyed,  but  they  are  principally 
consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  linings  for  coats;  when 
they  are  dyed  brown  and  striped  they  are  sometimes 
called  ''Florida  Mink"  and  "Mink  Marmot";  and  they 
are  also  marked  so  as  to  make  a  good  imitation  of  the 
leopard. 


309 


THE  UNGULATA. 

The  Ungulata,  or  hoofed  mammals,  constitute  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  important  orders  of  the  animal  king- 
dom. They  are  all  herbivorous  ruminants  with  a  few 
notable  exceptions  that  are  omnivorous ;  and  none  of  them 
have  the  digits  of  the  fore  or  hind  limbs  provided  with 
either  claws  or  nails,  as  is  the  case  with  other  animals. 

In  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  toes  of  Ungulates  are 
encased  in  solid  hoofs,  although  a  few  species  are  fur- 
nished with  broad  flat  nails.  Many  extinct  forms  have 
four  or  five  well  developed  digits  to  the  limbs,  but  in  all 
living  members  of  the  order  except  the  elephant  which 
has  five,  there  are  never  more  than  four  functional  digits ; 
and  in  a  large  number  of  instances  these  functional  digits 
are  reduced  to  two,  and  in  some  cases  to  three,  while 
in  the  horse  and  its  living  allies  only  a  single  digit  re- 
mains. 

Richard  Lydecker,  in  his  ''Royal  Natural  History,'* 
says:  ''As  it  is  of  primary  importance  in  order  to  have  a 
clear  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  this  reduction  of  digits 
takes  place,  to  understand  the  relationship  of  existing 
Ungulates  one  to  another,  the  subject  may  be  dealt  with 
in  some  detail. 

"In  all  the  Ungulates  the  limbs  have  entirely  ceased 
to  be  used  as  organs  of  prehension,  arid  there  would  seem 
to  be  no  necessity  as  development  advances  why  there 
should  be  any  adherence  to  the  primitive  five-toed  type. 
The  majority  of  the  members  of  the  order  being,  however, 
unable  to  protect  themselves  against  foes,  and  being  also, 
in  proportion  to  their  height,  heavy-bodied  animals,  the 
attainment  of  a  high  degree  of  speed  was  essential  to 
their  well-being  and  development,  if  not  for  their  actual 
existence.  For  such  a  kind  of  life  it  will  be  obvious 
that  the  greater  the  length  and  slenderness  of  limb,  the 
greater  will  be  the  speed.  Now,  in  order  to  produce  a 
long  and  slender,  and  at  the  same  time  a  strong  limb,  from 
a  stout  and  short-toed  one,  greater  strength  will  clearly 
be  attained  by  reducing  the  number  of  the  toes,  and 
lengthening  and  strengthening  those  which  remain,  rather 
than  by  lengthening  the  whole  of  the  five  toes,  the  slender 
bones  of  which  would  be  liable  to  fracture  by  the  concu!*- 


310  Ungulata. 

sion  of  the  solid  hoofs  against  the  ground.  Accordingly, 
among  the  Ungulates,  the  plan  has  been  to  gradually 
lengthen  and  strengthen  the  bones  of  one  or  more  of  the 
original  five  toes,  and  at  the  same  time  to  dispense  more 
or  less  completely  with  the  others. 

"A  complete  transition  has  thus  been  traced  from  a 
five-toed  Ungulate,  walking  partly  on  the  soles  of  its 
feet,  to  one  provided  with  but  a  single  toe  to  each  foot, 
and  walking  entirely  upon  the  very  tip  of  that  one  toe, 
by  which  means  the  full  extent  of  the  limb  comes  into 
play  as  an  aid  to  speed.  Throughout  this  series  it  is  the 
third  or  middle  toe  which  has  undergone  development  at 
the  expense  of  the  others;  and  since  this  toe  is  always 
symmetrical  in  itself,  the  term  Odd-Toed  Ungulates  is 
applied  to  the  members  of  the  group  thus  characterized. 

''The  resources  of  nature  are,  however,  manifold,  and 
instead  of  this  being  the  only  line  of  evolution  of  the 
Ungulates,  nearly  similar  results  have  been  reached  by  a 
totally  different  series  of  modifications;  in  some  cases 
instead  of  the  third  toe  remaining  symmetrical  in  itself 
and  gradually  increasing  in  size  at  the  expense  of  the 
others,  the  third  and  fourth  toes  become  symmetrical  to 
a  vertical  line  drawn  between  them.  When  this  takes 
place  the  first  toe  disappears,  and  the  second  and  fifth 
become  diminished  in  size ;  an  instance  of  this  stage  of 
development  being  presented  by  the  pig,  where  the  two 
large  and  medially-symmetrical  toes  represent  the  third 
and  fourth  of  the  typical  series,  while  the  two  small  lat- 
eral ones  are  the  second  and  fifth.  In  the  pigs  all  the 
metacarpal  bone§  remain  distinct  and  relatively  short; 
but  in  the  water-chevrotain  of  Africa  the  third  and  fourth 
metacarpals  become  much  elongated  and  closely  applied 
to  one  another,  while  the  second  and  fifth  are  reduced 
to  mere  splints,  and  their  toes  so  diminished  as  to  become 
practically  functionless.  Finally,  in  the  deer,  oxen,  and 
their  allies,  the  third  and  fourth  metacarpals  in  the  fore- 
limb,  and  the  corresponding  metatarsal  bones  in  the  hind- 
limb,  have  become  completely  fused  into  a  single  rod-like 
bone,  corresponding  in  function  with  the  cannon-bone  of 
the  horse,  and  generally  known  by  the  same  name.  The 
dual  origin  of  this  cannon-bone  is,  however,  proclaimed 


Ungulata.  311 

by  the  formation  of  its  lower  extremity,  which  carries  two 
pulley-like  surfaces,  with  which  the  bones  of  the  two 
functional  toes  (the  third  and  fourth)  articulate. 

^' Since  all  the  Ungulates  displaying  this  second  modi- 
fication of  foot-structure  agree  in  having  the  third  and 
fourth  toes  arranged  symmetrically  to  a  line  drawn 
between  them,  they  are  collectively  termed  the  Even-Toed 
Ungulates. 

''It  is  accordingly  evident  that  although  a  few  living 
Ungulates,  like  the  elephant  and  the  hyrax,"  retain  a  gen- 
eralized type  of  foot,  the  greatest  number  of  the  living 
representatives  of  the  order  are  characterized  by  their 
more  or  less  markedly  specialized  feet. 

"As  regards  their  teeth,  the  Ungulates  are  character- 
ized by  those  of  the  cheek-series  having  broad  crowns, 
surmounted  either  by  columns  or  transverse  ridges,  and 
adapted  for  grinding  and  masticating  vegetable  sub- 
stances. In  the  more  specialized  forms,  like  cattle  and 
horses,  these  cheek-teeth  have  their  columns  or  ridges  of 
great  height  and  closely  approximated  to  one  another,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  bases  of  the  hollows  or  valleys 
by  which  these  columns  or  ridges  are  separated  from  one 
another,  cannot  be  seen  when  the  tooth  is  unworn,  while 
the  pattern  produced  on  the  crown  by  the  wearing  down 
of  these  columns  or  ridges  is  complex.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  more  primitive  types,  such  as  pigs  and  tapirs,  the 
crowns  of  the  cheek-teeth  have  low  columns,  or  ridges, 
so  that  the  bases  of  the  intervening  valleys  can  be  dis- 
tinctly seen  at  all  stages  of  wear. 

''It  should  also  be  mentioned,  that  whereas  in  Carni- 
vores the  upper  molar  teeth  are  generally  of  the  primi- 
tive triangular  type,  in  all  existing  Ungulates  the^r  have 
assumed  the  quadrangular  form.  The  food  of  the  Ungu- 
lates consisting  in  most  cases  entirely  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances requiring  much  mastication,  is  the  inducing  cause 
for  the  complex  structure  of  the  cheek-teeth  in  the  more 
specialized  kinds ;  and  to  the  same  cause  may  be  at- 
tributed the  circumstance  that  Ungulates  always  retain 
the  full  number  of  molar  teeth,  and,  except  in  the  camels, 
at  least  three  out  of  the  typical  four  premolars. 


312  Ungulata. 

"The  order  is  well  represented  on  all  the  continents 
of  the  globe,  with  the  exception  of  Australia,  but  at  the 
present  day  it  has  a  far  larger  number  of  species  in  the 
Old  World  than  in  the  New;  many  of  those  from  the 
former  area  belonging  to  groups  quite  unknown  in  the 
latter.  Although  represented  in  the  Arctic  regions  only  by 
the  reindeer  and  the  musk-ox,  Ungulates  are  found  alike 
in  the  coldest  and  the  hottest  regions  of  the  globe.  The 
maximum  number  of  peculiar  forms,  as  well  as  those  of 
greatest  corporeal  bulk,  are,  however,  inhibitants  of  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  regions;  and  it  is  also  in  the 
warmer  regions  that  the  greatest  number  of  species 
occur." 

Collar-bones  are  invariably  absent  in  all  the  species  of 
the  Ungulata,  and  their  limbs  as  a  rule  are  restricted  to 
a  backward  and  forward  motion ;  while  all  of  them  are 
adapted  to  a  life  on  land,  most  of  them  can  swim  if  neces- 
sary, and  none  of  them  are  arboreal;  as  a  rule  they  are 
characterized  by  their  relatively  large  size,  the  order  in- 
cluding the  most  bulky  of  all  mammals;  and  most  of 
them  have  a  tendency  to  develop  horns  of  some  kind  or 
other  on  the  head. 


HOLLOW  HORNED  RUMINANTS. 

Under  the  name  Hollow  Horned  Ruminants  are  in- 
cluded only  the  oxen,  sheep,  antelopes  and  goats;  but  the 
deers,  swine,  camels  and  some  other  types  also  belong  to 
the  even-toed  or  cloven-footed  Ungulates. 

Some  scientists  include  all  the  Hollow  Horned  Rumi- 
nants except  the  Prongbuck  or  Blessbok  (Bubalis-albifrons), 
in  the  family  Bovidae  ;but  others  place  only  the  oxen  in  the 
Bovidae,  and  put  the  Antelopes,  Camels,  Deers,  Goats,  Sheep 
and  Musk  Ox  into  separate  families,  known  respectively 
as  the  Antelopinae,  Camelidae,  Cervidae,  Capriniae,  Ovinae 
and  Ovibromae.  These  Hollow  Homed  Ruminants,  to- 
gether with  the  Giraff,  form  a  division  distinguished 
from  all  the  other  Even-Toed  Ungulata  by  the  absence  of 
front  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  the  possession  of  complete 
cannon  bones,  and  hoof  enclosed  feet,  and  four  cham- 
bered stomachs  '*  divided  into  four  complete  cavities,  into 


Ungulata.  313 

the  first  of  which  the  food  is  temporarily  received 
until  it  is  regurgitated  into  the  mouth,  when  it  is  com- 
pletely masticated,  and  afterwards  conveyed  to  the  true 
digesting  stomach.  This  process  is  known  as  the  func- 
tion of  'chewing-the-cud,'  or  ruminating;  and  the  Un- 
gulates in  w^hich  it  occurs  are  consequently  termed  Rumi- 
nants. The  ruminating  function  is,  however,  developed 
in  the  camels  and  chevrotains,  as  well  as  in  the  assemblage 
of  four  families  constituting  the  present  group;  but  as 
the  camels  and  chevrotains  differ  in  several  important  re- 
spects, it  is  convenient  to  designate  the  group  under  con- 
sideration as  the  true  Ruminants,  or  technically,  the 
Pecora. 

''The  Hollow  Horned  Ruminants  are  distinguished 
from  their  allies  by  the  presence  of  true  horns ;  that  is.  to 
say,  of  hollow  and  unbranched  sheaths  of  horn  growing 
upon  bony  protuberances,  or  cores,  arising  from  the 
frontal  bones  of  the  skull,  neither  the  horny  sheaths  nor 
the  bony  cores  being  shed  at  any  period  of  existence.  In 
all  existing  wild  species  these  horns  are  present  at  least 
in  the  male  sex;  but  in  many  domesticated  races  of  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  goats,  they  are  absent  in  both  sexes ;  and  the 
same  holds  good  for  certain  extinct  members  of  the  fam- 
ily. Usually  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Hollow  Horned  Rumi- 
nants are  characterized  by  the  great  relative  height  of 
their  crowns;  and  in  all  cases  there  is  no  tusk  or  canine 
tooth  in  the  upper  jaw.  In  some  few  instances  the  small 
lateral  toes  may  be  completely  absent,  but  they  are  gen- 
erally represented  merely  by  the  small  spurious  hooflets 
alone,  which  may  be  supported  internally  by  minute  and 
irregularly-shaped  nodules  of  bone. 

''The  Hollow  Horned  Ruminants  are  chiefly  Old  World 
forms,  although  they  are  represented  in  North  America 
by  the  Musk-Ox,  the  American  Bison,  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Goat,  and  the  Big  Horn  Sheep.  They  are  quite  unknown  in 
the  southern  half  of  the  New  World." 


314 


Bison  and  Buffalo. 


The  Buffalo.  315 


THE  BUFFALO. 


The  American  Bison  (Bos-americanus),  is  generally 
known  as  the  Buffalo;  but  the  Buffalo  is  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent animal,  found  in  its  wild  state  only  in  India  and 
Africa.  There  are  four  distinct  species  of  this  animal, 
the  fiercest  and  largest,  being  the  Cape,  or  Black  African, 
Buffalo  (Bos-caffer),  whose  habitat  is  generally  in  the 
reedy  swamps  from  the  Cape  to  the  equator;  but  a  modi- 
fied variety  of  this  species  is  found  from  the  equator 
north  to  Abyssinia.  The  hair  covering  of  the  Cape  Buf- 
falos  is  always  thin,  and  in  old  age  the  skin  is  almost  bare. 
They  are  heavily  built,  and  a  full-grown  male  will  stand 
four  feet  six  inches  at  the  shoulder.  They  have  flattened, 
curved,  black  horns,  that  meet  at  the  base  forming  a  great 
bony  plate  on  the  front  of  the  head ;  the  horns  sometimes 
measure  three  feet  each  in  length,  but  they  are  so  curved 
along  the  line  of  the  head  that  the  span  from  bend  to  bend 
is  about  three  feet  and  six  inches ;  the  flapping  ears  are  of 
enormous  size,  and  are  thickly  fringed  with  hair  on  the 
lower  border. 

Cape  Buffalos  are  usually  seen  in  herds  of  from  fifty 
to  three  hundred  individuals.  They  are  swift  in  their 
movements,  and  according  to  Mr.  Selous:  '^When  charg- 
ing they  invariably  hold  their  noses  straight  out,  laying 
their  horns  straight  back  over  their  shoulders,  and  low- 
ering their  heads  only  as  they  are  about  to  strike. ' '  They 
live  as  near  the  water  as  possible  in  summer,  and  at  sun- 
down they  refresh  themselves  with  a  bath  before  feeding. 
They  breed  during  the  African  summer,  and  calves  are 
born  in  January,  February  or  March.  The  Cape  Buffalo 
sometimes  lives  to  be  thirty  years  old.  According  to  W. 
H.  Drummond,  there  is  a  variety  of  Cape  Buffalo  occasion- 
ally met  with  in  the  forest  with  blacker  hair  and  more 
spreading  horns  than  the  type  species. 

The  Short  Horned,  or  Red  Buffalo  (Bos-pumilis), 
whose  habitat  is  in  West  Africa,  is  smaller  than  the  fore- 
going, and  has  a  heavier,  lighter  colored  co^t  of  hair,  in 
some  cases  light  yellow  on  top  and  reddish  brown  below, 


316  Ungulata. 

with  a  sharply  defined  line  of  demarkation.  The  Buffalos 
found  in  the  Congo  district  (Bos-centralis)  are  larger  in 
size  and  have  much  flatter  horns  than  the  (Bos-pumilis.) 

The  Common,  or  Indian  Buffalo,  (Bos-bubalus),  dif- 
fers from  all  the  African  species  in  appearance.  It  is 
larger,  has  a  much  longer  head,  and  smaller  ears ;  the 
horns  are  very  large  and  flattened,  tapering  gradually 
from  the  root  to  the  tip,  and  being  much  longer  and  thin- 
ner in  the  cows  than  in  the  bulls.  Lydecker  says;  that 
a  skull  of  this  species  in  the  British  Museum,  has  horns 
measuring  twelve  feet  and  two  inches  from  tip  to  tip 
along  the  outer  curve;  and  he  also  tells  of  a  specimen 
measured  by  General  Kinlock,  that  stood  five  feet  high, 
had  a  girth  of  eight  feet  and  three  inches,  and  was  nine 
feet  and  seven  inches  long  from  the  end  of  the  nose  to 
the  root  of  the  tail,  the  tail  measuring  three  feet  and 
eleven  inches  more ;  the  horns  on  this  animal,  along  the 
greater  curve,  measured  eight  feet  and  three  inches. 

The  hair  on  the  Common  Buffalo  is  short  and  scanty, 
slightly  longer  on  the  head,  shoulders  and  front  of  neck 
than  on  the  rest  of  the  body,  and  almost  black  in  color. 
The  Asiatic  Buffalo  are  further  distinguished  from  the 
African  species,  by  having  the  hair  on  the  front  part  of 
the  back  directed  forward,  as  well  as  by  a  less  thickly 
fringed  beard,  and  more  elongated  and  narrower  heads. 
The  general  color  of  this  species  is  ashy  black,  although 
the  legs  are  whitish  and  sometimes  the  domesticated 
animals  are  pure  white  below  the  knees.  The  wild 
Indian  Buffalo  is  rarely  found  in  the  open  plains,  and 
its  habitat  is  generally  in  tall  grass  jungles,  of  such  height 
and  depth,  that  General  Kinlock  in  referring  to  them 
whites:  "Frequently,  although  a  herd  of  Buffalo  may  be 
aroused  within  a  score  of  yards,  the  waving  of  the  grass, 
and  perhaps  the  glint  of  a  polished  horn  tip,  is  the  only 
ocular  evidence  of  the  presence  of  these  animals.  The 
nearly  noiseless  tread  may  be  caused  by  other  animals; 
and  where  the  horns  have  not  been  seen,  it  is  only  by  the 
strong  sweet  smell — similar  to,  but  much  more  powerful 
than  that  of  cows — that  we  can  be  absolutely  certain  of 
what  is  in  front  of  us."  This  species  feed  chiefly  on  grass, 
are  not  shy,  and  are  always  seen  in  herds.  The  calves 
are  born  in  summer,  sometimes  two  at  a  time.     In  walk- 


The  Bison  and  Ox  FxVmily.  317 

ing  the  Indian  Buffalo  always  carries  its  head  low.  It 
loves  the  moist  ground,  and  its  broad  feet  prevent  it  from 
sinking  into  the  mud. 

The  Common  Buffalo  has  been  domesticated  in  India, 
and  from  there  introduced  into  Greece,  Italy  and  Hun- 
gary. It  is  much  more  powerful  than  the  Ox,  and  although 
in  a  wild  state  it  is  savage  and  dangerous  and  retains  its 
courage  in  captivity,  it  is  very  docile  w.hen  domesticated. 
It  is  much  heavier  than  the  Ox,  and  distinguished  from 
it  by  its  sparcely  haired  skin,  long  tufted  tail,  broad 
muzzle  and  angulated  horns.  In  India  this  animal  gives 
more  milk  than  the  ordinary  cow,  and  from  it  the  ghee — 
the  clarified  butter  of  India — is  made.  The  hides  of  the 
Buffalos  are  valued  where  strength  and  durability  are 
desired. 


THE  EUROPEAN  BISON. 

The  Gaur  (Bos-gaurus),  is  a  magnificent  animal;  but 
just  why  it  should  have  usurped  the  name  of  the  European 
Bison  (Bos-bonasus),  is  as  hard  to  understand  as  the 
reason  why  the  bison  should  so  often  be  called  Aurochs 
(Bos-primigenius),  a  species  of  European  Wild  Ox,  now 
extinct,  w^hich  was  the  progenitor  of  some  of  the  existing 
breeds  of  domestic  cattle. 

The  European  Bison  with  its  fourteen  or  fifteen  pairs 
of  ribs,  cylindrical  horns,  and  short  forehead,  resembles 
the  Yak  (Bos-grunniens)  more  than  it  does  either  the 
Gaur  or  the  Aurochs.  It  differs  from  the  Yak  in  certain 
cranical  characteristics,  as  well  as  in  the  great  excess  in 
height  of  the  withers  over  the  hind  quarters,  which  pro- 
duces a  distinct  hump  on  the  shoulders,  that  is  intensified 
by  the  mass  of  dark  brown  hair,  similar  to  that  on  the 
American  Bison  but  not  so  abundant,  with  which  the  head, 
neck  and  shoulders  are  covered.  The  long  hair  is  con- 
tinued as  a  kind  of  crest  along  the  back  nearly  to  the  root 
of  the  tail,  the  remainder  of  the  body  being  covered  wnth 
a  short  curly  hair  of  a  lighter  tint ;  its  tail,  unlike  that  of 
the  American  Bison,  is  covered  with  hair  the  full  length 
and  is  tufted  on  the  end.  In  many  respects  the  European 
Bison  resembles  the  American  species  to  which  it  is  very 
closely  allied;  but  it  has  longer  legs  and  a  shorter  body. 


318  Ungulata. 

shorter  hair,  more  tubular  eyes,  and  longer  and  straighter 
horns.  It  is  a  forest  dwelling  animal,  feeding  largely  on 
leaves,  twigs  and  the  bark  of  trees.  The  calves  of  this 
species  are  born  in  May  or  the  early  part  of  June,  and 
apparently  the  cows  do  not  produce  more  frequently  than 
once  in  three  years. 

The  European  Bison  formerly  ranged  in  considerable 
numbers  over  a  large  part  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
England ;  but  in  1892  the  herds  had  decreased  to  less  than 
five  hundred  individuals.  Since  that  time,  owing  to  gov- 
ernment protection,  there  has  been  an  increase;  and  in 
1906,  it  was  estimated  that,  in  addition  to  the  small  cap- 
tive herds  belonging  to  the  Czar  of  Russia  and  the  Prince 
of  Pless,  there  were  about  seven  hundred  wild  Bison  on 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Caucasus,  and  an  equal  number 
protected  by  the  game  wardens  of  the  Czar  in  the  forests 
of  Bielowitza,  and  Swisslotsch.  The  wild  European 
Bison  live  in  small  scattered  bands,  sometimes  at  an  ele- 
vation of  eight  thousand  feet,  where  they  are  exposed  to 
extreme  cold ;  but  they  are  much  less  thickly  haired  than 
those  found  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania. 


THE  GAUR. 

The  Gaur  (Bos  gaurus),  the  Wild  Ox  of  India,  whose 
range  extends  into  Burma  and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  is- 
the  handsomest  and  tallest  ox  in  the  world,  the  cows 
standing  five  feet  and  the  males  sometimes  reaching  six: 
feet,  at  the  shoulder.  It  is  characterized  by  its  short  tail, 
white  legs,  narrow  pointed  hoofs,  large  ears,  the  forward 
curve  and  great  elevation  of  the  ridge  between  the  com- 
pressed, short,  conical  horns  that  are  very  thick  at  the 
base,  and  the  distinct  ridge  running  from  the  shoulders^ 
to  the  middle  of  the  back,  where  it  ends  in  an  abrupt  drop 
of  about  five  inches. 

The  top  of  the  head  is  ashy  white,  but  the  color  of 
the  rest  of  the  body  is  a  dark  brown  or  black  in  the  older 
males,  and  a  paler  reddish  brown  in  the  cows  and  young^ 
bulls.     The  hair  is  short,  fine  and  glossy. 

The  Gaur  prefers  the  hilly  districts  to  the  plains,  and 
in  India  is  generally  found  at  an  elevation  of  from  two  ta 
five  thousand  feet.     It  is  not  known  to  exist  in  a  domes- 


The  Bison  and  Ox  Family.  319 

ticated  state,  but  the  Gayal,  a  much  smaller  animal 
differing  from  it  in  the  formation  of  its  skull  and  horns, 
is  believed  by  some  to  be  a  modified  variety  of  the  Gaur. 


THE  YAK. 

The  Yak  (Bos-grunniens),  is  found  only  on  the  ele- 
vated plateau  of  Tibet.  The  color,  with  the  exception  of 
a  little  ^hite  around  the  muzzle,  is  a  blackish  brown. 
The  hair  on  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is 
short  and  nearly  smooth.  On  the  flanks,  breast  and 
the  under  part  of  the  limbs,  the  thick  hair,  which  protects 
it  from  the  cold  and  snow,  grows  to  a  great  length,  giv- 
ing the  animal  an  ungainly  appearance;  on  the  thick, 
bushy  tail  the  hair  is  often  twenty-five  inches  long.  The 
head  of  the  Yak  is  long  and  narrow  and  the  ears  and 
muzzle  small.  The  shoulders  are  high,  but  the  back  is 
otherwise  straight  without  any  falling  away  at  the  hips. 
It  has  short  stout  legs  and  large  rounded  hoofs.  The  horns 
are  nearly  cylindrical  and  curved  upwards  and  out.  The 
Yak  is  nearly  as  large  an  animal  as  the  Gaur. 

The  Wild  Yak  is  impatient  of  heat  and  delights  in 
the  cold;  it  is  only  found  near  the  limits  of  perpetual 
snow,  often  seeking  an  elevation  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
thousand  feet  in  summer. 

The  Yak  is  an  unsociable  animal,  but  breeds  in  con- 
finement and  can  be  crossed  with  other  cattle.  The 
grunt  of  this  animal  is  so  much  like  that  of  the  pig  that 
the  Germans  call  it  the  Grunzochs. 

The  domesticated  Yak  is  much  smaller  than  the  wild 
variety,  and  shows  considerable  variation  in  color,  some- 
times being  entirely  white.  It  is  about  the  size  of  an  ox, 
and  can  stand  a  much  higher  temperature  than  the  wild 
Yak.  It  is  covered  all  over  with  long  silky  hair,  hanging 
down  like  the  fleece  on  a  sheep.  The  head  is  rather  short ; 
the  eyes  large  and  beautiful ;  the  horns,  which  are  not  very 
large  spread  and  taper  from  the  base,  and  are  turned 
back  a  little  at  the  tips;  the  space  between  them  on  the 
forehead  being  covered  by  a  mass  of  curly  hair;  the  neck 
is  short  and  over  the  shoulders  there  is  a  bunch  of  long 
hair. 


320  Ungulata. 

The  meat  of  this  animal  is  good  for  food;  and  the 
silky  hairs  are  spun  and  woven  into  fabrics.  The  tails, 
especially  the  white  ones,  are  largely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  wigs.  In  Tibet  the  tails  are  suspended  as 
streamers  from  poles  set  before  the  entrances  to  the 
monasteries;  and  in  China  they  are  dyed  red  and  affixed 
as  pennants  to  the  roofs  of  summer  residences.  They  are 
used  throughout  the  East  as  fly  wisps  or  "chouris. 


?  > 


321 


THE  AMERICAN  BISON. 

Of  the  American  Bison  (Bos-americanus),  W.  T. 
Hornaday  says  :  ' '  The  magnificent  dark  brown  gauntlet 
and  beard,  the  shaggy  hair  upon  the  neck,  hump  and 
shoulders,  terminating  in  a  thick  mass  of  luxurient  black 
locks,  to  say  nothing  of  the  dense  coat  of  fine  fur  on  the 
body  and  hind  quarters,  give  to  our  species,  not  only  an 
apparent  height  equal  to  that  of  the  Gaur,  but  a  grandeur 
and  nobility  of  expression  which  are  beyond  all  compari- 
son among  Ruminants." 

The  possession  of  a  larger  and  more  luxuriant  mass 
of  hair  on  the  head  and  fore  quarters,  which  in  some  cases 
almost  sweeps  the  ground,  makes  the  American  Bison  ap- 
pear of  larger  size  than  the  European  species,  when,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  although  the  body  is  on  the  whole  more 
massively  built,  it  is  lower,  and  has  a  smaller  pelvis  and 
hind  quarters.  The  American  Bison  is  one  of  the  larg- 
est and  the  best  known  of  all  North  American  hoofed 
mammals;  and  with  two  exceptions,  the  Gaur  and  the 
European  Bison,  it  is  the  largest  of  all  Bovenine  animals. 
The  males,  who  have  short,  thick,  curved  horns,  stand 
from  five  feet  to  five  feet  eight  inches  at  the  shoulders, 
though  they  are  considerably  lower  at  the  hind  quarters. 
In  fresh  pelage  the  color  of  the  long  hair  on  the  calves 
is  of  a  reddish  hue;  but  on  the  full  grown  animals  it  is 
almost  black,  although  on  aged  or  worn  skins  it  becomes 
brown  or  grey.  The  twenty  inch  tail  always  has  a  six 
inch  wisp  of  long  black  hairs  on  the  end.  The  head  is 
convex,  the  muzzle  is  shorter  and  broader,  and  the 
skull  is  much  wider  than  in  domestic  cattle. 

According  to  Mr.  Hornday:  ''The  range  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bison  originally  extended  over  one-third  of  North 
America.  Starting  almost  at  tide  water  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  it  extended  westward  to  a  vast  tract  of  dense  forest, 
across  the  Alleghany  mountain  system  to  the  prairies  along 
the  Mississippi,  and  southward  to  the  delta  of  that  great 
system.  Although  the  great  plain  country  of  the  West  was 
the  natural  home  of  the  species,  where  it  flourished  most 
abundantly,  it  also  wandered  south  across  Texas  to  the 


322  Ungulata. 

burning  plains  of  northeast  Mexico,  westward  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  into  New  Mexico,  Utah  and  Idaho,  and 
northward  across  vast  treeless  wastes  to  the  bleak  and  in- 
hospitable shores  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake  itself. 

''Of  all  the  quadrupeds  that  ever  lived  upon  the 
earth,  probably  no  other  species  has  ever  marched  in  such 
innumerable  hosts  as  those  of  the  American  Bison.  It 
would  have  been  as  easy  to  count  or  estimate  the  number  of 
leaves  in  the  forest,  as  to  calculate  the  number  of  Bison 
living  at  any  time  during  the  history  of  this  species  prior 
to  1870.  Even  in  Central  Africa,  which  has  been  exceed- 
ingly prolific  in  great  herds  of  game,  it  is  probable  that  all 
the  herds  taken  together  on  an  equal  area,  would  never 
have  more  than  equalled  the  total  number  of  Bison  in  this 
country  fifty  years  ago."  But  as  Captain  Chittenden 
says :  'Marvelous  as  were  the  numbers  of  the  Buffalo,  their 
complete  disappearance  from  the  earth  in  less  than  a  gen- 
eration is  more  marvelous  still. ' 

When  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  in  1869,  cut  the 
range  of  the  Bison  in  two,  the  southern,  or  Texas,  herd,  in 
the  regions  of  the  staked  plains,  numbered  nearly  four 
million  individuals;  and  there  were  over  one  and  a  half 
million  in  the  northern,  or  Yellowstone,  herd  on  the  upper 
Missouri,  and  to  the  northward.  It  is  estimated  that  over 
three  and  one-half  million  of  the  southern  herd  were 
slaughtered  between  1872  and  1874,  and  by  the  end  of 
1875  this  great  herd  had  ceased  to  exist  as  a  body ;  the  sur- 
vivors, numbering  about  ten  thousand,  fleeing  to  the  wild- 
est parts  of  Texas  where  they  were  gradually  exterminated. 

Of  the  northern  herd  those  living  in  British  Columbia 
were  the  first  to  be  exterminated;  and  before  1880,  the 
herds  in  Dakota  and  Wyoming  had  also  been  greatly  re- 
duced by  the  Sioux  Indians,  who  ate  the  flesh,  ornamented 
their  dress  with  the  hair,  and  used  the  hides  of  the  Bison 
to  make  their  lodges,  boats,  shields,  beds,  clothes,  moccasins, 
bow-strings,  saddles  and  halters,  and  the  hoofs,  horn  and 
bones  for  manufacturing  an  endless  variety  of  other  arti- 
cles .  Trutly,  as  Captain  Chittenden  says :  ' '  more  than  the 
horse  to  the  Arab,  the  camel  to  the  pilgrim  in  the  desert, 
the  reindeer  to  the  Laplander,  the  seal  to  the  Eskimo  or 
the  elephant  to  the  Hindoo,  was  the  Buffalo  to  the  trans- 
Mississippi   Indian.     History    affords    no    other    example 


The  Bison  and  Ox  Family.  323 

where  a  single  product  of  nature,  whether  animal  or  veget- 
able, has  filled  so  large  a  place  in  the  life  of  a  people.  The 
self -sustenance  of  the  tribes  of  the  plains  would  have  been 
impossible  without  it,  and  when  the  Buffalo  disappeared 
these  tribes  fell  back  upon  the  government  in  hopeless  de- 
pendence for  the  very  necessities  of  existence. 

''This  remarkable  animal  (Bos-americanus)  furnished 
nearly  everything  that  the  Indians  wanted,  and  in  the  life 
of  the  trapper  as  well  it  was  a  principal  resource.  Almost 
every  part  of  its  huge  body  was  utilized,  and  a  volume 
would  be  required  to  catalogue  its  manifold  applications. 
The  hide  was  dressed  in  a  variety  of  ways,  each  special 
treatment  having  its  particular  use. 

"The  flesh  of  the  Buffalo  was  the  most  wholesome,  pal- 
atable and  universally  used  of  that  of  any  wild  animal. 
The  extent  of  its  use,  that  is,  the  degree  to  which  the  en- 
tire animal  was  thus  utilized,  depended  upon  its  abund- 
ance. When  there  were  multitudes  at  hand  the  epicurean 
palate  rejected  all  but  the  choicest  morsels,  but  in  times  of 
scarcity  every  part  of  the  flesh  did  duty  as  food.  The 
greatest  luxury  was  the  tongue  and  this  was  often  the  only 
part  taken.  The  hump  ribs  and  the  tenderloin  came  next 
in  favor,  but  the  smaller  parts,  such  as  the  marrow  bones, 
liver  and  gall,  and  parts  of  the  intestines,  were  often  de- 
voured with  avidity  while  the  process  of  butchering  was  still 
going  on.  The  fleece  fat  upon  the  animal's  back  was  gen- 
erally thick  and  rich,  and  was  an  important  article  in  the 
process  of  cooking. 

"All  authorities  unite  in  praising  the  excellence  of 
buffalo  meat,  and  the  true  plainsman  would  never  admit 
that  the  domestic  beef  could  approach  it.  It  always  agreed 
with  the  digestion  and  it  seemed  impossible  to  overeat  of  it. 
Combined  with  the  healthfulness  of  the  open-air  life  on 
the  prairies  or  in  the  mountains,  it  formed  a  perfect  food 
whose  virtues  became  widely  known ;  and  many  an  invalid 
has  recovered  his  health  on  the  plains  with  no  shelter  but 
the  sky  and  no  food  but  the  meat  of  the  buffalo. 

"The  methods  of  capture  were'  various.  "With  the 
Indians  wholesale  destruction  was  commonly  resorted  to 
by  alluring  vast  herds  at  full  gallop  to  the  brink  of  a  preci- 
pice or  into  the  mouth  of  an  artificial  enclosure.  The  force 
of  the  mass  behind  crowded  those  in  advance  ahead  until 


324  Ungulata. 

they  fell  upon  each  other  at  the  foot  of  the  cliffs  or  in  the 
enclosures,  and  were  thus  slaughtered  by  the  hundreds.  A 
great  deal  of  skill  and  favoring  conditions  of  wind,  as 
well  as  the  most  adroit  management  on  the  part  of  the 
Indian  who  clad  like  a  buffalo  acted  as  decoy  to  the  herd, 
w^ere  essential  to  the  complete  success  of  the  maneuver. 
These  hunts  were  matters  of  great  ceremony  among  the 
Indians.  Days  and  weeks  were  devoted  to  preparation, 
with  due  observance  of  the  established  religious  rites  of 
the  tribes,  and  the  most  rigid  laws  against  individual 
hunting  or  frightening  of  the  herds. 

"The  true  sportsman-like  attack  was  by  direct  on- 
slaught on  horseback,  or,  as  it  was  sometimes  called  from 
the  manner  of  approach  "the  surround."  It  was  managed 
with  the  same  ceremonious  preliminaries  that  were  observed 
by  the  Indians  in  all  great  buffalo  hunts.  The  attack  was 
made  by  riding  under  strict  discipline  in  careful  order 
directly  upon  the  herd  until  the  latter  had  fully  scented 
the  danger, "when  the  hunters,  each  free  to  go  where  he 
chose,  broke  into  a  wild  gallop  and  amid  the  thunder  of 
hoofs,  the  bellowing  of  the  frightened  beasts,  and  the 
clouds  of  dust  raised  in  the  mad  rush  of  so  many  animals, 
fell  pell-mell  upon  the  herd,  chasing  and  slaying.  So  com- 
pletely panic-stricken  w^ould  these  mighty  herds  become, 
and  so  little  sensible  of  where  to  flee,  that  most  of  them  fell 
victims  to  their  pursuers,  and  the  ground  where  the  attack 
took  place  would  be  strewn  with  hundreds  of  dead  bodies. 
Now  and  then,  when  some  infuriated  monster  turned  too 
quickly  upon  him,  a  luckless  hunter  would  be  unhorsed, 
or  even  slain  in  the  confusion  of  the  chase. 

"The  practical  American  hunter,  when  not  bent  on 
sport  for  sport's  sake,  but  after  meat  for  food,  adopted 
a  much  simpler,  more  direct,  and  quite  as  efficacious  means 
of  securing  his  game.  This  was  the  method  of  still  hunting, 
which  consisted,  as  the  name  suggests,  in  stealing  unob- 
served upon  the  intended  victim.  Generally  a  small  band 
was  preferable.  It  was  not  a  difficult  thing  to  crawl  from 
the  leeward  to  within  sure  rifle  shot  without  being  discov- 
ered. Then,  choosing  the  best  concealment  the  ground 
afforded,  the  hunter  would  commence  the  work  of  destruc- 
tion by  firing  at  the  fairest  mark.  The  animals,  hearing 
only  the  report  and  seeing  nothing,  would  not  flee,  but 


The  Bison  and  Ox  Family.  325 

stood  still  in  apparent  wonderment.  Presently  the 
wounded  animal  fell,  and  the  companions,  smelling  its 
blood,  gathered  round  it  and  tried  to  make  it  rise,  and 
even  lick  its  wounds ;  or  they  went  on  grazing,  apparently 
thinking  that  their  companion  had  lain  down  to  rest. 
Meanwhile  the  hunter's  rifle  was  busy,  shot  upon  shot 
was  heard,  and  victim  after  victim  fell,  until  either  be- 
cause there  w^ere  no  more  to  kill,  or  because  he  was  sur- 
feited with  slaughter,  he  rose  and  surveyed  his  conquest. 

''The  Buffalo  was  a  difficult  animal  to  kill.  A  ball 
upon  its  shaggy  head  or  neck  fell  off  as  from  a  panoply  of 
steel.  Wounds  in  the  nether  portion  of  the  body  were 
rarely  fatal.  It  was  .only  in  the  region  of  the  heart  that 
the  blow  was  sure,  and  the  Indians  and  white  hunters 
sought  out  this  region  in  all  their  attacks.  The  animal 
was  not  ordinarily  pugnacious  or  dangerous,  and  only  when 
smarting  with  its  wounds  would  it  turn  upon  its  enemy. 
But  its  rage  at  such  times  made  it  a  formidable  adversary, 
and  lucky  was  the  hunter  who  could  keep  out  of  its  way." 

With  the  opening  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  in 
1880,  the  white  man  joined  with  the  Indian  in  the  final 
work  of  destruction;  and  by  February  1883,  the  great 
northern  herd  was  also  practically  annihilated. 

Richard  Lydecker,  in  his  Royal  Natural  History,  quotes 
Mr.  Hornaday  as  saying:  "The  systematic  slaughter  of 
the  Bisons  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  hide  began  in 
1830,  and  the  ever  increasing  demand  for  "buffalo  robes," 
as  the  dressed  skins  were  termed,  soon  began  to  tell  on  their 
numbers;  but  it  was  not  until  the  completion  of  the  Kan- 
sas branch  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  in  1871  that  the 
great  slaughter  commenced,  which  attained  its  height  in 
1873 ;  when  it  is  believed  that  every  hide  which  came  into 
the  market  represented  four  Bisons  killed."  Some  idea  of 
the  wanton  destruction  of  that  time,  due  to  the  avarice  of 
the  hunter  and  trapper  and  the  reckless  cruelty  of  the 
sportsman,  may  be  formed  from  the  fact,  that  one  of  the 
three  roads  penetrating  the  southern  Bison  country  car- 
ried, in  1873,  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million  skins,  more 
than  a  million  and  a  half  pounds  of  meat,  and  fully  two 
and  a  quarter  million  pounds  of  bones. 

Referring  to  the  numerical  strength  of  the  American 
Bison  in  1866,  Catlin  in  his  "North  American  Indians" 


326  Ungulata. 

says :  ' '  The  almost  countless  herds  of  these  animals  that 
are  sometimes  met  with  on  the  prairies  have  only  been 
spoken  of  by  other  writers,  and  may  yet  be  seen  b}^  any 
traveler  who  will  take  the  pains  to  visit  those  regions. 
The  rutting  season,  which  is  in  August  and  September,  is 
the  time  when  they  congregate  in  such  masses  in  some 
places  as  literally  to  blacken  the  prairie  for  miles  around. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  at  this  season  to  see  at  these 
gatherings  several  thousands  in  a  mass,  eddying  and  reel- 
ing about  under  the  cloud  of  dust  which  is  raised  by  the 
bulls  as  they  are  pawing  in  the  dirt,  or  engaged  in  des- 
perate combats,  lunging  and  butting  at  each  other  in  the 
most  furious  manner,  as  they  constantly  are.  In  these 
scenes,  the  males  are  continually  following  the  females, 
and  the  whole  mass  are  in  constant  motion;  and  all  bellow- 
ing is  in  deep  and  hollow  sounds  which  mingled  together 
appear  like  the  sound  of  distant  thunder  at  a  distance  of 
a  mile  or  tw^o. 

*' During  the  season,  while  they  are  congregated  to- 
gether in  these  dense  and  confused  masses,  the  remainder 
of  the  country  for  many  miles  around  becomes  entirely 
vacated,  and  a  traveler  will  spend  many  a  toilsome  day, 
and  many  a  hungry  night,  without  being  cheered  by  the 
sight  of  one  buffalo.  If  he  retraces  his  steps  a  few  weeks 
after  however  he  will  find  them  dispersed  and  equally 
stocking  the  whole  country  and  grazing  quietly  in  little 
families  and  flocks.  *A  bull  in  his  wallow'  is  a  frequent 
saying  in  this  country,  and  it  has  a  very  significane  mean- 
ing for  those  who  have  ever  seen  a  bull  performing  ablu- 
tions, or  endeavoring  to  cool  his  heated  sides  by  tumbling 
in  a  mud  puddle. 

^'In  the  heat  of  summer,  these  huge  animals,  who  no 
doubt  suffer  very  much  from  the  great  profusion  of  their 
long  and  shaggy  hair,  often  graze  on  the  low  grounds  of 
the  prairies,  where  there  is  a  little  stagnant  water  lying 
amongst  the  grass,  and  the  ground  underneath  being  satur- 
ated is  soft.  Into  this  the  enormous  buU^  lowered  down 
upon  one  knee,  will  plunge  his  horns  and  at  last  his  head, 
digging  up  the  earth  and  make  an  excavation  in  the 
ground  into  which  the  water  filters  from  among  the  grass, 
forming  for  him  in  a  few  moments  a  cool  and  comfortable 
bath,  into  which  he  plunges." 


The  Bison  and  Ox  Family.  327 

Today  the  "Buffalo,"  as  the  American  Bison  is  gen- 
erally called,  is  little  more  than  a  memory.  Outside  of  a 
herd  of  five  hundred  "Wood  Buffalo"  lately  reported  to 
have  been  discovered  in  New  Mexico,  there  are  only  two 
herds  of  wild  Bison  in  existence  on  this  continent;  about 
twenty  head  remain  in  Yellowstone  Park,  and  a  herd  of 
about  three  hundred  inhabits  the  stretch  of  barren  terri- 
tory southwest  of  the  Great  Slave  Lake. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  possibly  two  thousand 
Bison  living  in  captivity  in  zoological  parks,  and  large  pri- 
vate game  preserves,  in  different  sections  of  North  Amer- 
ica ;  of  these,  forty-two  are  at  the  New  York  Zoological  Park 
in  the  Bronx;  and  thirty-seven  are  in  the  twelve  square 
miles  of  grazing  ground,  fenced  in  by  the  government  in 
the  Wichita  Forest  and  Game  Preserve,  when  the  New 
York  Zoological  Society,  in  1906,  presented  to  the  United 
States  government  the  fifteen  Bison  which  formed  the 
nucleus  for  this  herd. 

The  Bisons  breed  in  captivity  about  as  regularly  as 
domestic  cattle,  and  though  inclined  to  be  stubborn,  are 
mild  in  disposition.  The  calves  are  born  in  May,  June  and 
July,  and  full  maturity  is  reached  at  the  end  of  the  sev- 
enth year,  when  the  horns  of  the  male — at  first  a  straight 
spike — have  attained  their  whole  semi-circular  curve.  Like 
all  thick  haired  animals  in  the  temperate  zone,  the  Bison 
sheds  its  coat  in  the  spring,  and  does  not  regain  full  pelage 
until  October  or  November. 

Contrary  to  the  method  employed  in  dressing  cattle, 
the  skin  of  the  ' '  Buffalo ' '  was  parted  along  the  spine ;  the 
chief  articles  of  commerce  obtained  from  it  being  the  skin, 
horns,  tongue  and  tallow;  for  only  the  choicest  parts  of 
the  carcass  were  removed  when  the  animal  was  plentiful, 
the  great  bulk  of  it  being  left  to  rot  on  the  plains. 

As  far  back  as  1840,  the  American  Fur  Company's 
agents  sent  into  St.  Louis  sixty-seven  thousand  "Buffalo 
robes,"  and  in  1848  a  hundred  thousand  "robes"  and 
twenty-five  thousand  "Buffalo"  tongues  were  received  at 
St.  Louis;  the  shipments  to  New  York  in  the  seventies  an- 
nually exceeded  these  figures,  and  the  writer  distinctly 
remembers  when  "Buffalo  robes"  sold  for  seven  and  eight 
dollars  each,  and  when  a  good  "Buffalo"  coat  could  be 
bought  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dollars.     Those  who  know 


328 


Ungulata. 


how  common  they  were  at  that  time,  and  who  are  familiar 
with  the  durability  of  the  "Buffalo"  hide  and  fur,  wonder 
where  they  have  all  gone.  No  one  dreamed  forty  years 
ago  that  the  time  would  ever  come  when  a  ''Buffalo"  skin 
would  be  a  curiosity,  and  a  mounted  ' '  Buffalo ' '  head  would 
be  worth  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  a  thousand  dol- 
lars ;  but  that  is  the  condition  of  things  today. 

When  we  consider  that  there  is  really  nothing  to  take 
the  place  of  the  "Buffalo"  skin  for  warmth  or  service,  as 
well  as  the  food  value  of  the  species,  it  seems  a  pity  that 
the  North-West  Breeding  Company,  organized  in  1886,  to 
interbreed  the  Buffalo  with  selected  native  cattle,  did  not 
succeed  in  their  undertaking.  They  appear  to  have  made 
as  complete  a  failure  as  the  Buffalo  Wool  Company, 
formed  in  Winnipeg,  in  1832,  to  weave  the  hair  of  the 
Bison  into  cloth. 


Rocky  Mountain  Goat. 


329 


HAPLOOERUS-MOUTANUS. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Goat  so  closely  resembles  a  small 
American  Bison  that  there  is  considerable  difference  of 
opinion  among  scientists  as  to  Avhether  it  should  be 
classed  with  the  oxen  or  the  goats,  and  it  has  been  given 
a  separate  genus.  This  animal  will  weigh  as  much  as  the 
average  Virginia  deer,  and  measures  about  five  feet  in 
length,  and  three  feet  in  height.  It  has  a  very  short 
tail,  and  a  dense  woolly  undercoat,  which  like  the  coarse 
long  outer  hair,  is  yellowish  white  in  color.  Mountain 
goats  generally  occupy  grassy  belts  high  up  on  the  moun- 
tains in  AVashington,  Idaho  and  Montana ;  but  it  is  said 
that  in  British  Columbia  they  sometimes  come  so  near  to 
tide  water  that  more  than  one  specimen  has  been  shot 
from  a  canoe.  They  are  clumsy  looking  creatures,  but  as 
Dr.  W.  T.  Ilornaday  says:  "they  are  the  most  daring 
climbers  of  all  of  the  American  hoofed  animals,  and  the 
small,  angular,  compact  hoofs,  which  are  an  ingenious 
combination  of  rubber  pad  inside  and  knife  edge  outside, 
hold  them  equally  well  on  snow,  ice  or  bare  rock,  so  that 
they  can  cross  walls  of  rock  which  neither  man,  dog,  nor 
mountain  sheep,  would  dare  attempt  to  pass;  and  thus 
in  spite  of  their  natural  stupidity  they  generally  escape 
from  hunters  who  seek  to  destroy  them,  as  an  evi- 
dence of  their  prowess  rather  than  for  any  beauty  or 
commercial  value  they  possess." 

Dr.  Hornaday  believes  that  some  of  the  species  of  our 
North  American  animals  were  acquired  by  immigration 
from  the  Old  World.  He  says:  "It  requires  no  stretch 
of  the  imagination  to  behold  Bering  Strait  choked  with 
the  great  Polar  ice  pack,  and  hardy,  strong-built  boars, 
wolves,  mountain  sheep,  and  reindeer  crossing  over  the 
sixty  miles  that  now  separate  Asia  from  Alaska,  and 
spreading  in  all  directions  over  North  America.  I  fully 
believe  that  the  parent  stock  of  our  mountain  sheep, 
caribou,  moose,  wolves  and  bears  came  from  Asia  by  that 
route."  Possibly  the  presence  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
Goat  on  this  continent  can  be  accounted  for  in  the  same 
way. 


330  The  Musk  Ox 


THE  MUSK  OX. 

Possessing  the  teeth  of  a  Sheep,  and  the  horns  of  a 
bull,  and  intermediate  between  the  sheep  and  the  ox  in  size 
and  some  other  characteristics,  the  Musk  Ox  (Ovibos-mus- 
chatus),  is  given  a  distinct  genus  midway  between  the  two. 
It  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  size  of  the  American  Bison, 
but  owing  to  its  heavy  coat  of  long  hairs  looks  much  larger 
than  it  really  is.  Although  it  has  a  musky  odor,  there  is  no 
special  gland  as  in  the  Musk  Deer  and  other  musky  ani- 
mals. Both  sexes  have  horns,  those  on  the  male  being  very 
broad  and  meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  from 
where  they  curve  downward  and  backward  beside  the  head 
for  most  of  their  length,  and  then  upward  and  forward. 
The  hair  is  amber  brown,  long  and  fine,  hanging  down 
along  the  sides  like  that  on  a  merino  sheep  so  as  to  cover 
the  short  tail  and  upper  half  of  the  short,  massive  legs; 
but  on  the  shoulders  it  is  matted  and  curly,  giving  the 
appearance  of  a  hump.  The  hoofs  are  remarkably  sym- 
metrical, the  outer  half  being  rounded,  while  the  inner 
is  pointed;  the  sole  of  the  foot  is  hairy.  The  head  is 
massive  and  the  small  ears  are  concealed  by  the  hair,  and 
the  space  between  the  nostrils  and  the  upper  lip  is  also 
covered  with  short,  close  hair. 

The  Musk  Ox  is  fleet,  active  aild  hardy,  and  sometimes 
makes  extended  migrations,  traveling  in  bands  of  a  dozen 
or  more.  Its  present  habitat  is  in  Arctic  America,  north 
of  the  sixtieth  degree  of  latitude;  but  fossilized  remains 
show  that  it  was  at  one  time  circumpolar,  and  that  its  range 
on  the  American  continent  extended  as  far  south  as  Ken- 
tucky and  Kansas.  This  would  indicate  that  at  some  time 
the  whole  of  North  America  was  much  colder  than  it  is  at 
present. 

The  long  fine  hair  of  the  Musk  Ox  has  at  times  been 
woven  into  fine  soft  fabrics,  but  now  it  is  too  expensive  to 
be  used  for  that  purpose,  and  at  present  the  skins  are  only 
used  for  robes.  The  meat  of  this  animal  is  coarse  grained, 
but  juicy  and  tender,  and  very  palatable  if  the  carcass  is 
dressed  as  soon  as  killed  so  it  will  not  take  on  a  musky 
flavor. 


Ungulata  331 


THE  OX. 


'* Stupid  as  an  ox"  is  an  expression  full  of  meaning 
when  applied  to  domesticated  species  of  cattle  that  are 
only  fattened  to  be  destroyed.  As  Professor  David  Low 
says,  in  his  Domesticated  Animals  of  the  British  Islands, 
''Nature  is  sparing  of  her  mental  gifts,  giving  to  each 
creature  only  that  which  is  fit  for  its  condition."  What 
benefit  would  consciousness  of  danger,  docility,  or  the 
knowledge  of  what  is  good  for  it,  be  to  a  creature  that 
only  lives  to  be  tied  to  a  stall,  or  driven  to  the  pasture 
to  be  fattened  for  the  slaughter-house? 

''The  wild  Oxen  that  have  never  been  reduced  to 
slavery,  or  those  who  on  the  fertile  plains  and  in  the  wilder- 
ness have  regained  their  liberty,  are  altogether  different 
creatures  from  the  apathetic  beasts  of  burden  that  their 
domesticated  kin  have  become.  They  are  wary  in  danger, 
resolute  in  defending  themselves,  and  fearless  in  protect- 
ing the  helpless  members  of  their  herds.  When  the 
Hottentots  still  had  a  country  they  could  call  their  own, 
and  were  rich  in  the  possession  of  vast  numbers  of  cattle, 
chosen  oxen  guarded  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  pro- 
tected them  from  marauders  and  the  Hyaenas  and  other 
beasts  of  prey;  and  so  great  was  the  intelligence  of 
these  creatures  that  while  any  inhabitant  of  the  Kraal 
could  safely  approach  their  charges,  a  stranger  attempt- 
ing to  do  so  would  have  been  in  great  danger  of  his  life. 
Not  only  were  they  taught  to  be  the  guardians  and  pro- 
tectors of  the  flocks  of  their  owners,  but  some  of  them 
were  trained  for  war  until  they  caught  the  spirit  of  their 
masters,  and  in  the  clash  of  contending  hosts  rushed 
upon  the  opposing  ranks,  and  trampled  the  enemy  under 
their  feet,  and  gored  them  with  their  horns." 

Although  Domestic  Cattle  are  all  spoken  of  as  belonging 
to  one  species  (Bos-taurus),  instead  of  springing  from 
one  common  source,  now  extinct,  there  are  really  many  local 
races,  produced  by  artificial  selection  from  various  wild 
species.  The  seventeen  distinct  breeds  on  the  British 
Islands,  many  of  which  have  been  introduced  into  this 
country,  are  so  different  from  one  another  that  if  they 
were  wild  animals  they  would  be  divided  into  a  number 


332  Domestic  Cattle. 

of  distinct  species ;  even  if  the  dairy  cattle,  the  beef  oxen, 
and  the  animals  valued  for  their  hides  alone,  were  not 
each  assigned  to  a  separate  genus. 

Spanish  writers  say,  that  the  origin  of  the  vast  herds 
of  cattle  which  cover  the  plains  of  Paraguay  and  other 
parts  of  South  America,  can  be  traced  back  to  several 
cows  and  a  bull  that  arrived  at  the  City  of  Assumption 
from  Andalusia  in  1556.  AVhether  this  is  literally  true 
may  be  questioned,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  European 
cattle,  whatever  may  have  been  their  original  number, 
multiplied  amazingly  in  their  new  habitat,  and  now 
extend  in  countless  multitudes  to  the  northward  from 
the  southern  boundaries  of  the  La  Plata  over  a  ter- 
ritory stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Cordilleras. 
In  the  beautiful  country  between  the  Andes  mountains 
and  the  Pacific  coast  the  oxen  are  reared  in  a  state  of 
domestication,  but  west  of  the  mountains  they  have 
entirely  escaped  from  the  dominion  of  man,  and  are 
hunted  by  the  Gauchos  of  the  country  solely  for  their 
hides,  the  carcasses  being  left  upon  the  fields  to  rot  or 
to  be  devoured  by  the  vultures  and  beasts  of  prey. 

The  Galloway  oxen  are  a  polled  Scottish  breed  of 
obscure  origin,  but  are  believed  to  have  been  descended 
from  the  West  Highland  Kyloes.  They  are  characterized 
by  their  short  limbs.  The  typical  color  of  this  species  is 
black,  but  brown  and  reddish  specimens  are  frequent. 
The  hair  is  long  and  thick,  especially  in  the  winter,  and 
the  skins  of  the  calves  make  warm  and  sightly  as  well 
as  serviceable  coats  for  men,  the  main  objection  to  them 
being  their  weigh-t,  for  while  they  are  soft  to  the  touch 
the  skins  are  thick  and  heavy.  Undoubtedly  many  of 
the  coats  sold  as  Galloways  are  made  from  the  skins  of 
other  varieties  of  calves  that  are  probably  just  as  good 
for  the  purpose  as  the  one  that  has  been  favored  by  the 
furriers. 

The  skins  of  still-born  young  cattle  of  various  breeds, 
known  as  "Yetta"  skins,  are  sometimes  worked  up  by 
the  furriers  into  coats  and  even  suits  for  women,  but 
cattle  are  chiefly  prized  for  their  food  value,  and  the 
various  bi-products  that  are  obtained  from  different  parts 
of  the  body.  The  skins  or  hides  are  mainly  used  for 
making:  leather. 


333 


THE  CAMEL. 

Many  portions  of  the  Orient  would  be  uninhabitable 
but  for  the  single-humped  Arabian  Camel  or  Dromedary 
and  the  Bacterian  Camel  with  two  humps,  now  known  only 
in  their  domesticated  state;  for  they  are  not  only  "the 
ships  of  the  desert,"  but  the  source  to  which  the  natives 
look  for  their  supply  of  milk,  flesh  and  hides,  and  the 
hair  which  is  a  valuable  article  of  trade. 

Much  could  be  written  about  the  ability  of  these 
animals  to  carry  great  burdens,  and  to  travel  many  days 
without  drink,  because  of  the  reserve  supply  of  water 
they  can  carry  in  their  peculiarly  constructed  cellular 
stomachs;  but  our  present  interest  is  with  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  Llama  genus  of  the  Camelidae  family 
sometimes  called  Cameloids.  The  Camelus  however  seems 
to  be  the  one  genus  that  has  gone  on  through  the  cen- 
turies without  changing  from  its  original  form,  but  is 
the  same  today  as  it  was  before  it  bore  the  ''Wise  Men 
of  the  East"  across  the  desert  with  their  gifts  of  gold, 
frankincense  and  myrrh. 

The  Alpaca  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  Llama  as  to  be 
regarded  by  some  as  a  smaller  variety  of  that  animal, 
rather  than  a  distinct  species.  It  exists  both  in  a  dom- 
esticated and  wild  state,  and  is  found  in  its  native  state 
in  the  Andes  Mountains,  especially  in  Chili  and  Peru. 
It  has  a  longer  neck,  but  otherwise  resembles  the  sheep 
in  form  as  well  as  size  although  it  belongs  to  the  Camel 
family.  The  long,  soft  wool  of  this  animal,  which  is 
straighter  than  that  of  the  sheep  and  very  shiny,  is  woven 
into  beautiful  silky  fabrics,  but  most  of  the  fabrics  sold 
as  alpaca  today  contain  little  if  any  alpaca,  being  made 
of  a  mixture  of  cotton  and  different  wools. 

The  Llama  (Lama-peruana)  has  an  extremely  long  neck, 
and  stands  from  three  to  four  feet  high.  The  dense  hair 
of  the  adult  is  long  and  coarse,  but  that  on  the  young 
Llamas  is  soft  and  silky.  Its  wool  is  used  to  some 
extent,  but  in  Peru;  where  it  is  most  abundant,  the  Llama 
is  used  by  the  natives  as  a  beast  of  burden.  The  usual  color 
is  white,  black  or  brown;  the  legs  being  black  on  both 
the  black  and  brown  varieties. 


334  Ungulata. 

The  Vicuna  (Lama-vicugna),  sometimes  called  the  Vi- 
cuna Sheep,  is  another  representative  of  the  Camel  fam- 
ily found  in  South  America,  principally  in  the  southern 
portion.  The  Vicuna  is  a  light  fawn  color  with  a  white 
belly,  and  has  a  short  tufted  fawn  colored  tail.  The  wool 
is  long  and  thick,  with  longer  hairs  projecting  through  it 
at  intervals,  and  is  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of 
woolen  cloth ;  the  skins  of  the  Vicuna  being  soft  and 
light  would  be  used  for  sleigh  robes  to  a  greater  extent 
than  they  are  if  they  were  less  expensive. 

When  the  Vicuna  stands  with  its  two  and  a  half  foot 
neck  extended  it  measures  about  six  feet  from  the  head 
to  the  ground.  It  is  generally  hunted  by  horsemen  with 
bolos. 

The  Guanaco  (Llama-huanacus),  the  most  valuable  ani- 
mal of  the  Lama  genus,  is  as  stupid  as  it  is  interesting. 
It  is  so  incapable  of  defending  itself  that  the  natives  of 
Terra  del  Fuego,  slaughter  Guanacos  for  food  by  sur- 
rounding groups  of  them  and  simply  clubbing  them  to 
death.  In  size  it  is  between  the  Llama  and  Vicuna, 
standing  about  four  feet  at  the  shoulders.  The  thick, 
woolly  hair  is  a  pale  reddish  brown  or  fawn  color,  but 
there  are  naked  patches  of  skin  on  the  legs. 

The  Guanaco  is  a  quaint  animal,  and  probably  really 
belongs  in  the  same  species  as  the  Vicuna.  It  has  a  pe- 
culiar cry,  between  the  belling  of  a  deer  and  the  neigh- 
ing of  a  horse.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  Patagonian 
plains,  where  its  two  principal  enemies  are  the  Patagon- 
ian Indians  and  the  Puma,  as  it  is  the  principal  food  of 
both.  The  skin  is  also  of  great  value  to  the  Patagonians, 
as  their  long  robes  are  made  from  it.  In  commerce  it  is 
chiefly  used  for  sleigh  robes,  but  in  this  day  of  artistic 
improvement  there  is  no  telling  under  what  name  or  in 
what  guise  it  will  appear  next. 


The  Antelopes.  335 


THE  ANTELOPE. 

The  only  representatives  of  the  Antelope  family,  with  its 
many  beautiful,  curious  and  interesting  species,  that  can 
by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination  be  brought  within  the 
scope  of  this  work  are : 

The  Indian  Antelope  (Antilope-cervicapra),  whose  skins 
are  occasionally  used  by  furriers  for  various  purposes ;  The 
Spring-Bock  (Gazella-euehore),  which  is  found  in  Southern 
Africa,  and  whose  skins  make  good  glove  leather;  The 
Gnu,  or  Wildebeest  (Connochoetes-taurina),  the  quaint 
South  African  animal,  with  the  hoofs  of  a  stag,  the  head  of 
a  bison,  the  horns  of  a  buffalo,  and  the  tail  of  a  horse, 
which  was  once  sought  for  its  hide,  but  is  now  only  valued 
because  it  can  be  broke  to  the  plow;  and  The  Chamois 
(Rupicapra-tragus),  which  lends  its  name  to  the  skins 
sometimes  used  by  furriers  for  intermediate  linings,  and 
the  pockets  in  fine  garments. 

None  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  commercially 
to  call  for  extended  mention  here,  unless  it  may  possibly 
be  the  Chamois,  which,  to  quote  from  the  Official  Guide  to 
the  New  York  Zoological  Park,  ^'has  its  home  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Southern  Europe,  especially  the  Pyrenees,  the 
Swiss  Alps  and  the  Caucasus;  and  is  the  animal  so  often 
pictured  as  leaping  from  crag  to  crag,  across  chasms 
apparently  two  hundred  feet  wide;  but  it  is  not  exclu- 
sively a  crag  dw^eller,  for  in  many  localities  it  inhabits 
the  mountain  forests.  Like  most  other  mountain  ungu- 
lates, the  Chamois  dwell  high  in  summer,  and  in  the  win- 
ter they  seek  lower  and  more  sheltered  situations.  They 
are  exceedingly  wary  and  agile,  and  sure-footed  on  dan- 
gerous ground." 

The  Chamois  are  about  three  feet  long,  and  have  small 
almost  vertical  horns  that  turn  backwards  and  down  at 
the  tips. 

In  beauty  the  Sable  Antelope  (Hippotragus-niger)  of 
Africa,  surpasses  all  other  species.  Some  claim,  however, 
that  the  purple  and  white  Blessbok  (Bubalis-albifrons), 
that  seems  to  have  about  disappeared  since  the  Boer 
War,   was   its   superior  in  this  respect,   even   though   it 


336  Ungulata. 

lacked  the  impressive  presence  and  the  intelligent  air 
that  together  with  its  shapely  horns  and  glossy  black  and 
white  coat,  make  the  Sable  Antelope  conspicuous  in  a 
family  noted  for  the  grace  and  beauty  of  its  representa- 
tives. 


Sable  Antelope 

All  Antelopes  have  true  horns  and  with  the  exception 
of  a  single  species  belong  to  one  family.  The  Prong-Ham 
Antelope  (Antilocapra-americana),  now  rapidly  becoming 
extinct,  is  the  only  animal  possessing  a  hollow  horn  with  a 
prong,  and  the  only  hollow-horned  animal  that  sheds  its 
horns  each  year.  It  also  lacks  the  "dew  claws"  possessed 
by  all  other  ruminants,  and  has  long  tubular  hair  on  the 
neck  and  body,  that  is  erectile  on  the  rump.  Its  horns  are 
placed  directly  over  the  eyes. 


The  Deer  Family.  337 


THE  DEER  FAMILY. 

There  are  many  species  of  deer.  Strictly  speaking 
none  of  them  are  fur  bearing  animals,  but  some  of  them 
are  noticed  here  because  they  are  as  familiar  to  most  of  us 
as  the  Dogs  and  Cats  that  are  the  household  pets  in  so 
many  homes.  They  are  of  commercial  importance  on 
account  of  the  value  of  their  horns,  hair  and  hides,  the 
service  they  can  be  trained  to  render  to  mankind,  and 
the  food  v^^ith  which  they  supply  him;  to  say  nothing 
of  their  effect  upon  subsidiary  wild  life,  or  the  use  the 
natives  of  their  various  habitats  make  of  the  skins  of  the 
deer  for  clothing  and  other  purposes. 

The  East  India  Deer  (Cervus-axis),  whose  antlers  are 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  knife  handles  and  whose  skins 
make  excellent  leather,  are  sometimes  used  by  the  furriers 
in  making  foot  muffs.  It  is  an  abundant  animal,  which 
inhabits  India  and  Ceylon.  It  is  a  beautiful  and  graceful 
creature  with  numerous  white  spots  upon  its  light  brown 
coat  which  on  the  belly  change  into  white  lines. 

It  is  characteristic  of  the  axis,  which  in  India  is  also 
known  as  the  chital,  that  the  three  points  on  the  antlers 
are  thrown  forward,  with  the  exception  of  the  second 
tine  which  points  backwards.  It  is  generally  found 
among  bushes  or  trees  in  the  neighborhood  of  water,  and 
in  bamboo  jungles,  either  on  the  plains  or  at  an  elevation 
of  three  to  four  thousand  feet.  The  Axis  are  gregarious 
and  good  swimmers,  taking  readily  to  the  water. 

There  is  great  variation  as  regards  the  pairing  sea- 
son and  the  shedding  of  antlers,  bucks  with  fully  devel- 
oped antlers,  and  young  fawns,  being  met  with  at  all  sea- 
sons. 

The  Fallow  Deer  (Dama-vulgaris)  is  the  best  known 
of  all  the  deer  family.  It  is  found  in  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  and  has  a  light  brown  body  spotted  with  white. 
The  inside  of  the  legs  is  a  beautiful  fawn  color,  and  the 
black  tail  is  tipped  and  edged  with  white.  In  some  speci- 
mens, that  have  no  white  markings  on  the  tail,  the  legs 
and  points  are  brown  and  the  general  color  of  the  body 


338  Ungulata. 

is  almost  black.  The  Fallow  Deer  is  larger  and  heavier 
than  the  Axis,  and  has  a  short,  well  formed  head  with  full 
round  nose  and  expressive  eyes.  The  antlers  are  rather 
palmated  at  the  top  and  are  usually  turned  backwards. 
The  antlers  are  shed  in  April,  and  the  bucks  get  rid  of  the 
velvet  on  the  new  ones  in  August,  by  striking  them  against 
the  branches  of  the  trees.  The  pairing  season  is  in  Sep- 
tember, and  the  does  bring  forth  one  or  two  young  ilt 
May.    This  is  the  species  usually  seen  in  zoological  parks. 

The  White  Tailed  Virginia  Deer  (Cariacus-virginianus), 

was  formerly  widely  distributed  through  North  America, 
and  is  still  found  in  Montana  and  Alaska.  It  has  short 
bristly  hair  of  a  light  grey  color,  sometimes  marked  with 
small  spots,  especially  on  the  hind  quarters.  The  antlers 
have  an  abundance  of  points  and  are  small,  branched  and 
curved  abruptly  forward. 

The  skins  are  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of 
leather  leggings. 

The  Black  Tailed  or  Mule  Deer  (Cariacus-marcrotis), 

is  another  North  American  species  and  derives  its  name 
from  the  length  of  its  ears.  It  is  larger  than  the  Virginia 
Deer,  and  its  color  is  reddisli  brown.  The  principal  hab- 
itat of  the  Mule  Deer  is  from  Montana  north  and  west  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  Its  skins  are  largely  used  by  German 
leather  manufacturers. 

The  Red  Deer  (Cervus-elaphus),  inhabits  France,  Ger- 
many and  Norway,  and  is  still  occasionally  seen  in  the 
British  Islands,  where  it  was  at  one  time  very  abundant 
and  extensively  hunted.  Next  to  the  Wapiti,  the  European 
Red  Deer  is  the  finest  living  deer  in  the  world.  The  stags 
are  of  a  brownish  red  color,  with  a  dark  mark  along  the 
center  of  the  back,  and  dark  brown  legs,  and  whitish  or 
light  brown  tail  and  buttocks. 

The  head  of  the  stag  is  beautifully  formed  and  pointed, 
and  has  a  lighter  shade  of  color  around  the  under  jaw 
and  the  large  expressive  dark  brown  eyes;  the  hind  is 
lighter  in  color  and  weight  than  the  stag,  and  has  a  more 
pointed  nose.  The  hinds  usually  consort  with  the  stag  in 
the  second  year,  and,  as  a  rule,  produce  but  one  calf  at  a 
time.  The  young  ones  remain  with  the  hinds  until  they 
are  nearly  two  years  old,  although  they  are,  of  course,  able 


The  Deer  Family.  339 

to  take  care  of  themselves  much  earlier.  The  pairing  sea- 
son begins  in  October  and  the  period  of  gestation  is  about 
eight  months.  The  calf  at  birth  is  white  spotted  like  a  fal- 
low deer,  and  remains  so  for  the  first  three  or  four  months ; 
after  that  the  spots  gradually  disappear  and  the  true  color 
of  the  Red  Deer  asserts  itself. 

The  male  sheds  his  antlers  in  March,  and  the  new  ones 
begin  to  grow  in  April ;  as  is  the  case  with  all  deers  he  eats 
freely  while  they  are  developing,  and  by  the  time  new 
antlers  are  complete  and  hardened  in  September  he  is  very 
sleek  and  fat.  He  does  not  long  continue  so,  for  during 
the  rutting  season  when  many  fierce  combats  occur  be- 
tween the  males  he  does  not  eat  and  becomes  very  thin. 

Until  the  stag  is  full  grown,  which  is  in  ten  years,  the 
points  on  the  autlers  increase  year  by  year. 

The  skins  of  Red  Deer  make  excellent  leather,  and  the 
antlers  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  knife  handles, 
etc.  In  ancient  times  the  antlers  were  used  as  picks  and 
hammers. 


340  The  Ungulata. 


TRUE  HORNS  AND  ANTLERS. 

Antlers  are  worn  by  the  female  cariboos  and  nearly 
every  male  member  of  the  deer  family,  and  usually  have 
several  branches.  They  are  solid  modifications  of  true 
bone  grov^n  from  the  skull,  that  are  shed  every  year  and 
quickly  renewed.  They  are  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  from 
the  simple  spikes  of  some  species  to  the  immense  branched 
or  palmated  antlers  of  the  stag,  elk  or  moose.  During 
growth  they  are  covered  with  a  velvety  tissue  that  is 
furry  outside,  and  abounding  in  blood  cells  which  afford  a 
copious  supply  of  blood  to  the  rapidly  enlarging  osseous 
tissue.  When  the  antlers  are  fully  developed  the  vascular 
activity  of  the  velvety  ^tissue  fceaJses,  and  the  velvet 
shrivels  and  peels  or  is  rubbed  off  by  the  animal.  The  old 
antlers  are  usually  shed  in  March,  and  the  velvet  dis- 
appears from  the  fully  developed  new  antlers  just  before 
the  mating  season  in  August  or  September. 

In  the  first  year  a  stag  has  only  frontal  protuberances; 
in  the  second  a  simple  stem  or  snag,  called  a  spike; 
in  the  third  year  a  larger  stem  with  one  branch,  called 
the  brow  antler,  is  developed.  The  bay  antler  is  produced 
the  fourth  year,  and  the  royal  antler  is  acquired  in  the 
fifth  year.  After  that  the  horns  of  the  stag  become  more 
or  less  palmate,  with  diverging  points.  The  main  stem 
of  a  branched  antler  is  called  the  beam,  and  the  branches, 
exclusive  of  the  mere  points  on  the  palmated  part,  are 
called  tines. 

Horns,  as  before  stated,  are  hollow  sheaths  growing 
over  bony  cores,  and  except  in  the  case  of  the  prong- 
horn  are  never  shed.  They  are  worn  by  both  sexes  of 
most  species  of  Bison,  Buffaloes,  Cattle,  Antelopes,  Sheep 
and  Goats.  True  Horns  arise  from  the  frontal  bones  of 
the  skull. 


341 


THE  WAPITI. 

The  Wapiti  (Cervus-canadensis),  the  largest  Deer  on  the 
globe,  exists  only  in  North  America,  where  it  is  often 
erroneously  called  the  Elk.  Large  herds  of  this  animal 
formerly  ranged  throughout  the  continent,  but  it  has  be- 
come reduced  in  numbers,  and  its  range  has  been  re- 
stricted. Now  it  is  seldom  seen  anywhere  except  in  Wash- 
ington, Oregon,  California,  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  on 
Vancouver's  Island;  the  largest  herd  remaining  outside 
of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  being  found  in  the  Olympic 
Mountains  in  Washington  and  on  the  mountains  on  Van- 
couver's Island. 

The  Wapiti  stands  from  five  to  six  feet  high,  and  al- 
though large  males  sometimes  exceed  a  thousand  pounds 
in  weight,  the  usual  weight  is  about  seven  hundred  pounds, 
and  full  grown  females  often  weigh  less  than  four  hun- 
dred pounds.  The  color  is  dark  brown  on  the  head  and 
neck,  a  creamy  grey  on  the  back,  flanks  and  sides,  and 
black  on  the  under  parts  of  the  body.  The  legs  are  brown, 
and  there  is  a  light  patch  bordered  with  black  on  the 
buttocks. 

The  full  grown  stag  is  really  a  magnificent  creature, 
symmetrical  in  form,  and  remarkable  for  the  graceful  ease 
with  which  he  carries  the  immense  antlers.  These  some- 
times attain  to  a  length  of  sixty  inches  and  over,  and  in 
the  fifth  year  develop  five  points  each,  but  after  that 
period  the  number  increase  irregularly  so  that  in  older 
animals  there  are  often  more  snags  on  one  antler  than  the 
other.  The  hinds  are  smaller  and  lighter  in  color  than 
the  males,  and  have  a  more  pointed  nose,  and  fine,  large, 
plaintive  eyes.  The  young  are  born  in  May,  a  single  fawn 
usually  being  produced  at  a  birth,  but  occasionally  two 
appear. 

The  general  habits  of  the  Wapiti  are  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  Eed  Deer  to  which  scientists  say  it  belongs. 
The  old  stag  lives  apart  from  the  main  herd  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year ;  and  in  the  pairing  season  after 
having  vanquished  his  rivals  in  a  fight  takes  pos- 
session of   a  party   of   hinds.     At  the   breeding  season 


342  llNGUIiATA. 

the  Wapiti  desert  the  lower  hills  to  take  refuge  in  the 
higher  ranges,  getting  as  near  as  possible  to  the  snow  line 
without  leaving  the  upper  belt  of  the  forest.  The  hinds 
leave  the  herds,  and  the  fawns  are  born  in  the  most  se- 
cluded thickets.  The  antlers  are  shed  late  in  December  or 
early  in  January,  and  the  new  antlers  begin  to  sprout  in 
March  or  April,  and  are  complete  by  August.  At  this  time 
the  call  of  the  old  stag  has  such  a  resemblance  to  the 
bray  of  a  donkey  that  the  old  traders  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains called  it  the  ''Jackass  Deer." 

Unlike  most  of  the  Deer  the  Wapiti  do  not  feed  at 
night,  but  eat  during  the  day,  very  much  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  Moose ;  but  they  are  not  particular  as  to  what 
they  eat,  consuming  the  coarsest  grasses  and  w^eeds  as 
freely  as  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots  of  deciduous  trees. 
In  the  winter,  when  they  are  pressed  for  food,  they  will 
even  gnaw  the  bark  off  the  trees. 

The  skins  of  the  Wapiti  are  used  for  leather,  and  the 
antlers  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  antlers  are  worth 
from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  dollar  a  pair. 


The  Moose  or  Elk.  343 

THE  MOOSE  OR  ELK. 

(Alces-machlis) 

The  distinction  between  the  Moose  and  the  Elk  is  one  of 
locality  and  not  of  species.  The  Elk  of  the  Old  World  and 
the  Moose  of  the  New  are  so  similar  in  formation,  nature, 
distinguishing  characteristics  and  habits,  that  in  considering 
one  we  get  a  perfect  description  of  the  other.  Long  before 
the  Moose  was  discovered  in  America,  the  Elk  was  hunted 
in  every  part  of  the  British  Islands,  the  continent  of  Eur- 
ope and  Northern  Asia;  but  it  is  rapidly  diminishing  in 
numbers,  although  it  is  still  found  in  Norway  and  Sweden, 
Eastern  Prussia,  and  in  parts  of  Russia  and  Siberia. 

The  Moose  is  valued  by  the  hunters  and  trappers  prin- 
cipally for  its  flesh  and  horns,  as  its  hide  is  inferior  to  that 
of  other  wild  animals.  It  is  the  largest  living  representa- 
tive of  the  Deer  family,  and  is  characterized  by  the  length 
of  its  limbs,  its  short  neck,  long  flapping  ears,  and  the 
length  and  narrowness  of  its  head,  the  ungainly  aspect  of 
which  is  greatly  increased  by  the  large  nostrils,  and  the 
large  hairy  overhanging  muzzle.  The  front  legs  are  con- 
siderably longer  than  the  hind  ones,  and  as  the  Moose  stands 
six  feet  from  the  ground  at  the  shoulder  it  cannot,  owing 
to  its  short  neck,  feed  from  the  ground,  but  subsists  on 
shrubs,  and  the  leaves  and  tender  branches  of  the  trees. 

In  his  description  of  the  Moose,  Richard  Lydecker  says : 
''The  antlers,  instead  of  emerging  from  the  forehead  at 
an  acute  angle  with  its  middle  line,  and  inclining  forward, 
as  is  the  case  with  all  living  representatives  of  the  genus 
Cervus,  project  on  either  side  at  right  angles  to  the  mid- 
dle line  of  the  forehead  and  on  the  same  plane  as  its  surf- 
ace. Their  basal  position  consists  of  a  short  cylindrical 
beam  without  any  tine,  and  beyond  this  beam  they 
expand  into  an  enormous  basin-like  palmation  containing 
snags  on  the  outer  edge.  The  antlers  of  a  fine  specimen 
may  weigh  as  much  as  sixty  pounds,  and  have  a  span  of 
sixty-five  inches,  a  length  along  the  palmation  of  forty- 
one  inches,  and  a  ridge  across  the  same  of  forty-eight 
inches."  The  antlers  of  the  male  do  not  attain  their  full 
dimensions  until  the  ninth   year.    The  female   and  the 


344  Ungulata. 

yearling  male  show  only  knobs  an  inch  high.  The  tail  of 
the  Moose  is  a  mere  rudiment,  and  the  feet  have  large  and 
shapely  pointed  hoofs. 

The  bull  Moose  is  much  larger  than  the  female,  and  has 
a  hair-covered  appendage  on  the  throat,  formed  by  the  di- 
latation of  the  skin,  varying  from  four  to  ten  inches  in 
length. 

The  Moose  is  found  throughout  Canada,  and  in  Maine 
and  Minnesota  and  the  northern  part  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. The  Alaskan  Moose  of  the  Yukon  Valley  is  un- 
doubtedly the  largest  form  of  its  genus,  and  has  lately  been 
classed  as  a  separate  species  (Alces-gigas). 

The  Moose  feed  from  early  dawn  till  sunrise,  when 
they  repose  till  ten  or  eleven  o  'clock ;  then  they  feed  again 
till  about  two,  when  they  take  another  resting  spell  until 
four  or  five  o  'clock,  after  which  they  feed  until  dusk,  when 
they  lay  down  for  the  night.  In  summer  they  are  solitary 
in  their  habits,  wandering  alone  in  the  neighborhood  of 
swamps,  rivers  or  lakes ;  but  in  winter  they  gather  in  small 
parties  in  what  are  termed  moose  yards,  which  are  always 
located  in  some  part  of  the  country  where  there  is  an  abun- 
dant growth  of  deciduous  trees  such  as  white  birch,  maple, 
poplar  and  mountain  ash,  which  with  the  shoots  of  the 
evergreen,  balsam  fir  and  juniper,  form  the  diet  of  the 
moose. 

The  antlers  of  the  Moose  are  shed  during  January,  and 
the  new  pair  are  fully  developed  by  August.  The  hair  of 
the  Moose  is  coarse  and  with  the  exception  of  the  yel- 
lowish legs  generally  of  some  shade  of  brown,  but  during 
some  seasons  and  at  certain  ages  the  pelage  may  be  of  a 
greyish  hue.  The  favorite  pace  of  the  Moose  is  a  long, 
swinging  trot.  The  slaughter  of  these  animals  when 
imprisoned  in  their  yard  in  winter  is  prohibited  by  law. 
The  three  legitimate  methods  of  capturing  them  are : 
stalking  or  still  hunting,  fire  hunting  and  calling. 


The  Caribou  or  Reindeer.  345 


THE  REINDEER  OR  CARIBOU. 

The  word  Caribou  applied  to  the  American  Reindeer,  is 
a  contraction  or  corruption  of  the  name  "caire  boeuf " — 
square  ox — given  this  animal  by  the  French  Canadians 
when  it  was  first  discovered  in  America. 

The  Woodland  variety  (Rangifer-caribou),  which 
stands  about  four  and  one-half  feet  at  the  shoulders,  and 
weighs  from  three  hundred  and  fifty  to  four  hundred 
pounds,  is  found  in  Labrador,  northern  Canada,  Maine, 
Minnesota,  northern  Idaho  and  Montana,  Oregon  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mt.  Hood,  British  Columbia,  and  south- 
ern Alaska  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Yukon  River.  It 
is  twice  the  size  of  the  barren  ground  Caribou  (Rangifer- 
groenlandicus),  whose  habitat  in  the  summer  is  confined 
to  Greenland  and  the  barren  arctic  wastes  north  of  the 
forest  regions  of  North  America,  but  which  in  winter 
makes  extensive  migrations  into  the  territory  of  the 
Woodland  Caribou,  but  even  when  living  in  the  same 
district  the  two  species  do  not  intermingle. 

In  its  wild  state  the  Caribou,  like  the  European  Rein- 
deer (Rangifer-tarandus),  lives  on  mosses,  leaves,  grass 
and  aquatic  plants,  its  great  resource  being  lichens.  Like 
the  European  variety,  the  American  Reindeer  is  an  ani- 
mal of  great  speed  and  endurance,  "frequenting  marshy 
and  swampy  grounds,  and  loving  ice-covered  lakes  and 
ponds  as  much  as  any  boy/'  Caribous  are  so  shy  they  are 
difficult  animals  to  stalk,  but  they  can  be  easily  killed  by 
the  hunter  who,  taking  advantage  of  the  wind,  shoots  as 
they  pass  along  on  their  migrations,  when  they  travel  in 
herds  and  are  not  as  shy  and  wary  as  when  wandering 
singly. 

But  little  is  known  about  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
Reindeer,  though  it  is  understood  that  the  "barren 
grounds"  Caribou  pairs  in  winter,  and  the  Woodland 
species  in  September.  The  antlers  of  the  bucks  are  shed  in 
December,  but  the  small  antlers  with  which  the  does  are 
provided  do  not  fall  until  the  spring.  The  fawns  are 
produced  in  Ma.y,  and  are  either  one  or  two  in  number. 


346  Ungulata. 

The  Reindeer  is  invaluable  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arc- 
tic regions  in  Europe,  Asia^and  America.  It  was  formerly 
abundant  in  Scotland.  In  Norway  there  are  still  thou- 
sands of  domesticated  reindeer  on  the  farms,  the  males 
being  harnessed  and  used  for  sledding  and  draught  pur- 
poses and  the  females  yielding  an  abundance  of  milk.  The 
domesticated  breed,  which  is  smaller  than  the  wild  race, 
is  also  found  in  Siberia  and  Lapland.  The  flesh  of  the 
Reindeer  is  excellent  eating,  the  tongue  and  kidney  being 
considered  great  delicacies. 

The  Old  World  Reindeer  (Rangifer-tarandus),  stands 
from  three  to  four  feet  high,  and  is  buff  or  brown  in  color, 
lighter  on  the  belly  and  head  than  the  back;  in  Labrador 
it  is  almost  white,  and  pure  white  specimens  are  met  with 
in  Lapland.  Mottled  animals  are  sometimes  seen  in  Rus- 
sia. The  hair  is  abundant,  bristly  and  brittle,  affording  an 
excellent  protection  from  the  arctic  cold,  and  its  broad 
feet  enable  it  to  walk  with  ease  on  the  snow.  The  antlers 
are  peculiar  and  vary  in  formation,  no  two  pair  being  alike, 
but  they  always  curve  forward,  and  usually  consist  of  two 
branches  radiating  into  many  points.  The  majority  of  the 
males  have  a  brow  antler,  which  is  a  triangular  piece  of 
bone  shaped  like  a  spatula  and  hanging  over  the  nose,  and 
it  is  claimed  that  they  use  this  antler  to  scrape  the  snow 
away  from  the  moss  on  which  they  feed.  The  females  have 
antlers  as  well  as  the  males. 

The  hair  of  the  Reindeer  is*  said  to  have  floating  qualities 
superior  to  cork,  and  life  belts  and  buoys  are  sometimes 
made  of  it.  The  Eskimos  make  coats  and  sleeping  bags, 
which  are  both  light  and  impervious  to  the  cold,  from  the 
skins,  but  in  Europe  they  are  generally  used  for  leather. 

In  Russia,  the  skins  of  the  younger  animals  are  made 
into  linings,  called  Pijiky,  which  are  light,  warm  and 
durable. 


347 


THE  GOAT  FAMILY. 

Goats  do  not  generally  range  as  far  north  as  the  sheep, 
but  they  live  at  higher  altitudes  and  incline  to  the  steep 
cliffs  and  mountain  regions,  where  their  remarkable 
climbing  powers  enable  them  to  speed  where  other  ani- 
mals could  scarcely  get  a  foot  hold.  They  connect  the 
antelope  with  the  sheep,  which  they  approach  so  closely 
in  their  internal  organization  that  many  authorities  be- 
lieve that  they  should  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the 
same  family,  although  they  are  of  widely  differing 
natures  and  appearance. 

The  Goat  even  when  enslaved  is  restless,  bold  and 
independent,  fearlessly  facing  the  enemies  who  assail  it, 
and  is  always  familiar  and  capricious,  wandering  at'  will 
away  from  its  fellows  to  seek  the  crags  where  the  shrubs 
it  craves  are  to  be  found. 

Goats  all  have  hard  callosities  on  their  knees,  short 
tails,  hairy  muzzles,  and  a  more  or  less  distinct  beard 
upon  the  chin  of  the  males,  who  are  further  characterized 
by  a  strong  odor.  In  the  few  cases  where  foot  glands 
are  present  they  are  found  only  on  the  forefeet.  Both 
sexes  have  horns,  those  of  the  males  rising  close  together 
on  the  head  above  the  plane  of  the  forehead,  and  grow- 
ing upward  and  backward  to  a  considerable  length,  but 
seldom  showing  the  spiral  twist  which  is  a  characteristic 
of  the  horns  of  all  sheep  except  the  Ovis-tragelaphus. 
Goats  show  no  gland  pits  in  the  skull  below  the  eyes,  and 
the  outline  of  the  face  instead  of  being  curved  like  that 
of  the  sheep  is  straight;  like  the  latter  they  are  covered 
Avith  a  mixture  of  wool  and  hair,  but  in  the  sheep  the 
wool  forms  the  essential  covering  for  the  body,  while  in 
the  goat  the  hair  predominates. 

All  wild  goats  are  frequently  spoken  of  as  Ibexes, 
but  that  name  rightly  belongs  only  to  the  few  species 
with  long,  flat,  mottled  scimetar-like  horns,  dwelling  in 
the  Himalayas,  and  on  the  higher  mountains  of  South 
Eastern  Europe,  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Abysinriia.  The 
Ibexes  all  have  a  uniform  coloration,  varying  with  age 
and  the  season  from  a  grizzly  grey  to  various  shades  of 


348  Ungulata. 

brown,  the  color  always  being  lighter  on  the  throat,  belly 
and  the  inside  of  their  legs  than  elsewhere.  They  pair 
in  midwinter,  and  the  young,  two  at  a  birth,  are  born  in 
the  early  summer.  The  type  species  is  the  Alpine  Ibex 
(Capra-ibex). 

With  the  exception  of  the  Caucassian  Tur,  and  the 
Spanish  Capramontes,  all  the  different  races  of  True  Wild 
Goats  are  confined  to  some  of  the  mountainous  regions 
of  North  Western  Africa,  and  Central  Asia.  They  are 
strong,  agile  and  sure  footed  animals,  preferring  the 
leaves  and  small  branches  of  shrubs  for  food  to  the 
richest  pasture. 

At  one  time  the  Ibex  was  believed  to  be  the  ancestor 
of  all  the  many  breeds  of  common  goats,  and  later 
scientists  claimed  that  the  Pesang  (Capra-aegagrus)  was 
the  wild  stock  from  which  the  type  representatives  of 
the  domesticated  goat  were  descended ;  but  the  probability 
is  that  the  common  goats  were  derived  not  from  one  but 
from  a  number  of  wild  species;  for  not  only  do  goats 
of  different  countries  differ  from  one  another,  but  there 
often  exist  in  the  same  country,  and  under  the  same 
climatic  and  food  conditions,  races  so  divergent  that  it 
is  impossible  to  believe  that  they  have  come  down  from 
the  same  stock.  ''The  Black  Syrian  Goat,  with  its  con- 
vex face  and  udders  hanging  to  the  ground,  is  as  different 
from  the  other  domesticated  goats  of  that  country  as 
the  Jackal  is  from  the  Wolf;  and  the  little  goats  from 
the  coast  of  Guinea  have  been  acclimated  in  America  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years,  without  making  the  least 
approach  to  those  carried  to  the  same  country  at  different 
times  from  Europe." 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  Angora  Goat,  which 
is  noted  for  the  length  and  quality  of  the  soft  silky  white 
hair  which  covers  the  w^hole  of  the  body  and  the  greater 
part  of  its  legs,  and  which  is  of  much  more  value  to  the 
manufacturers  of  fabrics  than  the  short  coarse  under 
wool  which  is  beneath  it.  Some  of  the  skins  are  used  by 
furriers  to  make  children 's  sets  and  baby  carriage  robes ; 
and  at  times  there  is  also  a  demand  for  Angora  fringe 
or  trimming,  either  dyed  or  in  the  natural  glossy  white 
color.  During  the  cold  season  Angora  Goats  are  kept  in 
stables,  but  throughout  the  rest  of  the  year  are  allow^ed 


The  Goat  Family.  349 

to  roam  at  large  in  immense  herds,  each  buck  being 
accompanied  by  about  one  hundred  ewes.  They  are  shorn 
in  April.  This  species  is  believed  by  some  to  be  a  direct 
descendant  of  the  Wild  Himalayan  Markhor  (Capra- 
falconis),  which  is  distinguished  from  all  other  goats  by 
its  upwardly  directed,  spiral  twisted,  horns,  and  the  great 
extension  of  the  beard  on  its  throat  and  shoulders.  The 
Markhor  stands  about  three  feet  and  a  half  high,  and  is 
reddish  brown  in  summer  and  grey  in  the  winter.  Its 
beard  always  being  black  in  front  and  grey  behind. 

The  Cashmere  or  Tibet  Goat,  is  distinguished  by  its 
delicate  head,  long,  wide  half  pendulous  ears,  and  slightly 
spiral  erect  horns  w^hich  in  some  cases  incline  inward  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  cross.  In  this  animal  it  is  the  under 
wool  that  is  of  commercial  value,  being  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  shawls  and  certain  kinds  of  cloth.  This  wool 
falls  off  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  it  is  removed 
from  the  body  of  the  animal  with  combs,  the  long  hairs 
being  undisturbed. 

Goat  raising  is  an  important  industry  in  different  parts 
of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Chinese  Goat  skins  are  worked  up  by  furriers  annually 
into  rugs,  robes,  coats  and  other  articles  of  fur  wear. 
The  main  objection  to  goat  skins  is  their  odor,  which  how- 
ever is  not  so  noticeable  in  the  skins  of  the  females  and 
of  younger  animals.  Only  the  skins  of  the  very  young 
are  shipped  in  their  natural  shape,  the  others  being  sewed 
into  crosses  and  rugs  before  they  are  baled  for 
export.  The  Chinese  Goats  show  considerable  variation 
in  color,  but  grey  predominates.  A  large  percentage  of 
the  skins  are  dyed  black  before  being  used,  and  some  of 
the  still-born  kids  are  hard  to  distinguish  from  Moire 
Astrachans  when  they  come  from  the  dyers,  but  where 
there  has  been  any  growth  it  is  generally  easy  to  detect 
the  goat,  no  matter  what  name  may  be  used  to  hide  its 
identity. 

The  skins  of  many  varieties  of  goats  that  cannot  be  used 
by  the  furriers  make  fine  leather,  especially  those  from 
INIorocco ;  and  there  is  a  demand  everywhere  for  kid  skins 
for  the  manufacture  of  gloves. 


350  Ungulata. 


THE  HORSE. 

Horse  is  a  word  often  applied  to  any  member  of  the 
type  species  of  the  Equidse  family  without  regard  to  sex 
or  age;  but  strictly  speaking  the  adult  male  Horse  should 
be  called  a  stallion ;  the  matured  female  a  mare ;  the  female 
foal,  a  filly;  and  the  male  foal,  a  colt.  Pony  is  a  general 
term  for  all  small  horses,  and  a  gelding  is  a  castrated  male 
horse. 

The  Horse  was  probably  first  domesticated  in  Asia,  long 
before  it  was  historically  mentioned  in  Egypt  nineteen 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  The  original  wild  representa- 
tive of  the  species  which  was  at  one  time  found  in  all  parts 
of  Asia  and  Europe,  was  of  a  uniform  yellowish  grey  color, 
ninch  smaller  but  stronger  than  the  breeds  that  have  been 
descended  from  it. 

It  is  hard  to  believe  that  the  single-toed  slender 
Arabian  steeds,  huge  draft  horses  and  diminutive  Shet- 
land ponies  all  trace  their  origin  back  to  a  common 
several-toed  ancestor  scarcely  larger  than  a  fox,  and 
presenting  few  of  the  features  that  have  since  made  the 
Horse  the  most  remarkable  of  all  quadrupeds.  It  is 
evident  that  there  must  have  been  a  sustained  effort  all 
through  the  centuries  to  increase  the  size  of  the  species 
by  artificial  selection,  and  the  different  structural  charac- 
teristics referred  to  are  probably  largely  due  to  difference 
in  food  and  climate.  In  the  moist  temperate  regions 
where  the  herbage  is  rank  and  plentiful,  the  speed  which 
is  the  characteristic  of  the  breeds  reared  in  hot  dry 
southern  countries  where  food  is  scarce,  gives  places  to 
strength ;  and  powerful  draught  horses  are  just  as  natural 
a  result  in  Flanders,  as  racers  are  on  the  Arabian  deserts. 
The  smaller  relative  size  of  the  Norway,  Iceland  and 
Shetland  ponies  is  due  entirely  to  the  colder  temperature 
of  their  habitat. 

Horses  quickly  adapt  themselves,  to  new  conditions  and 
circumstances,  and  can  be  readily  tamed  and  broke,  but 
it  is  an  interesting  fact  that  if  turned  loose  they  will 
revert  to  their  wild  or  natural  state  as  quickly  as  they 
were  domesticated.  This  probably  accounts  for  the  im- 
mense herds  of  half-wild  ponies  that  range  the  Kirghiz 
Steppes,  and  other  portions  of  Asia. 


The  Horse  351 

The  brain  of  the  horse  is  small,  but  all  the  members  of 
the  family  are  noted  for  their  sagacity,  intelligence  and 
tenacious  memories;  while  their  timidity,  desire  to  be 
first  in  a  race,  their  conduct  on  the  battlefield,  their 
resentment  of  injury  and  appreciation  of  kindness,  all 
show  that  their  emotional  nature  is  also  highly  developed. 

It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the  Tarpans  of 
Asia,  like  the  mustangs  of  the  North  American  plains, 
the  Cumarans  of  South  America  and  the  Brumbies  of 
the  Australian  Bush,  are  the  descendants  of  reverted 
domestic  horses,  and  that  the  only  living  wild  horse  today 
is  the  Equus  Prejevalsky  of  the  sand  deserts  of  Central 
Asia,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  question  as  to  whether  that 
is  a  valid  species  of  the  true  horse,  or  an  intermediate 
between  the  horses  and  asses.  In  either  case  it  is  of 
little  value  from  a  commercial  or  utilitarian  standpoint. 

Of  all  the  various  species  of  partly  or  wholly  domes- 
ticated horses  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  only  one 
variety  has  any  value  as  a  fur-bearing  animal,  and  it 
was  less  than  ten  years  ago  that  furriers  began  to  recog- 
nize the  beauty  of  the  moire  marked  skins  of  the  foals 
of  the  so-called  Eussian  ponies.  These  hardy  animals, 
resulted  from  the  mixing  of  escaped  domestic  horses  with 
the  Tarpans,  and  in  spite  of  the  way  the  young  have  been 
slaughtered  by  the  Kamuck  and  Kirghiz  tribes,  so  that 
the  milk  of  the  mares  could  be  secured  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  Koumyss,  they  have  multiplied  until  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  are  now  over  10,000,000  of  these  animals 
on  the  850  square  miles  of  sterile,  stony  and  streamless 
plains  or  Steppes  between  the  Volga,  Chinese  Turkestan, 
the  Alutan  Mountains  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  that  the 
marketing  of  upwards  of  200,000  skins  annually  the  last 
few  years,  while  it  has  been  a  source  of  revenue  to  the 
nomadic  tribes  who  sold  them  has  in  no  way  threatened 
the  destruction  of  the  herds. 

At  first  the  skins  were  used  almost  entirely  in  their 
natural  state  for  automobile  coats,  but  when  it  was 
discovered  that  they  would  take  the  black  dye  so  as  to 
look  like  broadtail,  pony  coats  for  all  kinds  of  wear 
became  so  desirable  and  popular  that  for  a  time  the 
skins   trebled    and    quadrupled   in   value,    and   for   some 


352  •   Ungulata 

years  the  natives  killed  the  foals  immediately  after  birth, 
sparing  only  the  number  necessary  for  the  proper  con- 
servation of  the  species.  The  result  was  an  increase  in 
the  supply,  which  caused  a  decline  in  the  price  of  the 
skins  of  the  ' '  Kirgisenpf erd, "  as  it  is  called  by  the 
Germans.  The  color  ranges  from  a  clear  white  to  a  rich 
blue-brown;  the  hair  on  some  of  the  skins  being  as  flat 
and  silky  as  the  finest  broadtail,  and  on  others  as  shaggy 
and  harsh  as  the  coarest  astrachan. 

In  the  Equidae  family  are  included  besides  the 
Horse,  the  now  extinct  Quagga,  which  scientists  claim 
was  the  connecting*  link  between  the  horse  and  the  Wild 
Asses,  the  Zebra  and  the  Tapirs.  Wild  Asses  are  found 
in  Asia,  Syria,  and  Africa ;  the  African  species  being  the 
ancestor  of  the  domestic  breeds.  Sir  Samuel  Baker  said : 
''Those  who  have  seen  donkeys  only  in  their  civilized 
state  can  have  no  conception  of  the  beauty  and  courage 
of  the  wild  and  original  animal.  It  is  the  perfection  of 
activity,  has  a  high-bred  tone  of  deportment,  and  a  high 
actioned  step,  when  it  trots  freely  over  the  sands  with 
the  speed  of  a  race  horse  galloping  over  the  boundless 
desert." 

Zebras  were  once  very  numerous,  but  are  now  reduced 
in  numbers,  and  found  only  in  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara 
Desert.  They  stand  about  four  feet  high,  have  short 
manes  and  a  creamy  white  ground  color  marked  with 
broad  brown  or  black  stripes. 

The  Tapir,  which  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  ancestor  of 
the  horse,  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  the  odd-toed 
ungulates.  All  of  the  living  species  are  included  in  one 
genus — (Tapirus),  and  with  the  exception  of  one  variety 
found  on  the  Malayan  Peninsula,  they  are  restricted  to 
the  forest  regions  of  the  Andes  Mountains  in  America, 
but  at  one  time  they  were  also  spread  over  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  With  the  exception  of  the  Malayan 
species,  which  is  white  on  the  middle  of  the  body,  all 
Tapirs  are  uniformly  black  when  adult,  but  the 
young  are  all  spotted  and  striped  with  white.  They  are 
shy,  harmless,  nocturnal  animals,  living  near  the  water 
in  which  they  delight  to  swim. 


353 


THE  SHEEP  FAMILY. 

No  animal  is  of  greater  service  to  mankind  than  the 
Sheep.  Poland  rightly  says  that  what  the  American 
Bison  was  to  the  North  American  Indian,  and  what  the 
Reindeer  is  to  the  Laplander,  the  Sheep  is  to  all  the  in- 
habitants of  every  portion  of  the  world.  Clothing,  and 
lanoline  and  other  by-products,  are  made  from  its  wool; 
gloves,  shoes  and  innumerable  useful  and  ornamental  ar- 
ticles are  made  from  its  skin,  and  nearly  every  part  of  its 
body  is  used  for  food. 

We  are  told  that  the  Persian,  Astrachan,  Ukrainer  and 
other  sheep  producing  the  tight  curled  lambs,  whose  skins 
are  becoming  more  and  more  valuable  every  year,  are  the 
result  of  crossing  the  native  sheep  of  the  various  sections 
indicated  by  the  names  applied  to  the  different  lambs, 
with  the  Karakule  and  Arabi  Sheep  of  the  Asiatic  desert ; 
but  the  word  Arabi  is  a  general  rather  than  a  specific 
term,  and  Karakule  is  a  designation  applied  to  all  grade 
fur  producing  desert  sheep,  rather  than  to  any  particular 
species.  The  literal  meaning  of  the  word  is  Black  Lake, 
the  name  of  the  place  where  the  Russian  traders  first  went 
to  buy  Sheep  from  the  herders  of  the  Bokhara  Desert. 

Dr.  C.  C.  Young  of  Belen,  Texas,  a  breeder  of  Arabi 
desert  Sheep,  who  recently  made  a  hazardous  trip  to  the 
land  of  the  Persian  Lamb,  says:  '^The  Tartars  call  the 
producer  of  any  valuable  fur-bearing  sheep  Arabi.  Arab 
in  Tartar  means  black,  and  it  is  supposed  the  name  origin- 
ated from  this  source,  as  the  word  and  the  Sheep  are  un- 
known in  Arabia.  Th^  small  Arabi  (Ovis-patynra)  is 
practically  extinct,  and  the  one  this  country  has  been  get- 
ting most  of  its  skins  from  for  the  last  fifty  years  is  the 
large  Sheep  known  as  the  Doozbai. 

''When  mature,  all  of  the  breeds  have  black,  lustrous 
hair  on  the  legs,  tail,  abdomen,  face  and  head;  so  I  de- 
cided that  the  origin  of  them  all  must  have  been  a  black 
animal  with  a  powerful,  persistent  strain,  which  had  car- 
ried its  black  pigment  down  through  generation  after  gen- 
eration.    After  a  hunt  through   the   traditions   and  his- 


354 


Ungulata. 


tories  of  the  country,  a  talk  with  the  special  Ambassador 
of  the  Dalai  Lama  of  Thibet,  and  conferences  with  a 
representative  of  the  Emir  of  Bokhara,  a  trip  to  the  very 
borders  of  Afghanistan  and  a  careful  search  through 
desert  wastes,  I  found  the  origin  of  the  first  Persian 
Lamb." 

''Many  years  ago  there  were  neither  Karakules,  Arabis 
or  Doozbais  in  Bokhara ;  but  they  had  a  small  Black  Sheep 
with  a  wonderfully  lustrous  fur,  and  which  for  some  time 
after  birth  was  covered  with  uniform  curls.  There  was 
little  demand  for  the  fur,  and  what  was  used  was  purchased 
by  the  old  monarchs  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


Arabi  Kam 


''As  the  demand  increased  these  little  Black  Sheep, 
known  as  the  Danadar,  were  crossed  with  the  Koordiuk, 
an  immense  fawn  colored  desert-roving  Sheep,  giving  us 
the  Doozbai  wdth  its  beautiful  and  much  tighter  curls 
than  those  of  the  Danadar.  The  smaller  Arabi  resulted 
from  a  cross  between  the  Danadar  and  a  small  animal 
known  as  the  Gray  Kooldiuk.  From  these  have  descended 
the  breeds  which  now  produce  the  Persian  Lamb. 


The  Sheep  Family. 


355 


''It  is  said  that  there  are  a  few  specimens  of  the  Black 
Danadar  left  in  Khiva,  but  my  search  in  that  country 
failed  to  produce  any.  Chambo  Tshorze,  Ambassador 
from  the  Dalai  Lama,  told  me  there  were  some  Danadars 
in  a  valley  near  Lhassa  in  Thibet,  but  that  they  were  very 
few." 

For  several  years  the  government  has  been  making  tests 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  which  have  substantiated  the  claim 
advanced  by  Dr.  Young,  and  other  sheep  breeders  in  the 
Southwest,  that  by  crossing  some  of  our  domestic  long- 
wool  breeds  like  the  Lincolns,  Cotswolds,  Lestershires  and 
Dartmores  with  the  strains  of  the  Arabi,  or  broad  tail 
Sheep  of  the  Bokharan  desert,  a  fur  is  produced  that  is 
vastly  superior  to  that  of  the  Persian  and  other  Asiatic 
Lambs  for  whose  skins  the  American  people  are  spending 
millions  of  dollars  annually.  Dr.  Young,  in  writing  for 
the  Fur  Trade  Review  about  his  experiments  along  this 
line,  says : 


Arabi  Ewe  and  Lamb. 


''In  texture  some  skins  produced  by  us  at  Belen  and 
Conutello,  Texas,  show  an  unsurpassable  quality,  notwith- 
standing the  poor  pasture  that  we  w^ere  compelled  to  graze 
our  Sheep  on ;  and  I  have  no  hesitancy  in  predicting  that 
the  dry  West  and  Southwest  will  in  time  revolutionize  the 


356  Ungulata. 

Sheep  fur  industry,  for  it  was  no  trick  for  us  to  produce 
skins  valued  at  from  eight  to  twelve  dollars  in  a  raw  state. 
As  good  nutrition  means  luster  and  tightness  of  curl,  still 
better  results  can  be  obtained  in  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
States,  on  account  of  the  excellent  pasture  and  the  very 
nutritious  hay  that  can  be  secured  there." 

"When  we  consider  that  owing  to  the  lambs  being  killed 
so  soon  after  birth  the  ewes  can  safely  be  allowed  to  lamb 
twice  yearly ;  that  the  dead  lambs  lose  none  of  their  meat 
value,  and  that  the  skins  of  prematurely  born  lambs  often 
bring  fabulous  prices,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  profits  to 
be  derived  from  a  proper  prosecution  of  this  industry  will 
be  large. 

While  the  best  results  were  obtained  by  Dr.  Young  in 
the  first  cross  of  Arabis  wath  domestic  long-wools,  the 
tight-wool  strains,  like  Merinos,  Shropshire,  Ramboulets, 
etc.,  have  to  be  bred  to  the  Arabis  two  or  three  times,  be- 
fore producing  skins  equal  in  quality  to  those  secured 
from  the  first  cross  with  any  of  the  different  varieties  of 
our  long-wool  sheep. 

The  great  obstacle  to  the  prosecution  of  this  industry, 
is  the  almost  unsurmountable  barrier  placed  in  the  way 
of  bringing  live  Arabi  stock  into  this  country,  because  of 
the  rigid  quarantine  the  Department  of  Agriculture  has 
established  against  the  entire  continent  of  Asia,  on  ac- 
count of  the  existence  of  surra  in  Southwest  India,  and  the 
Maltese  fever  in  the  Maltese  Islands. 

Much  that  has  been  written  about  the  killing  of  the 
mother  to  secure  the  skin  of  the  unborn  Persian  Lamb  is 
pure  fiction,  but  it  is  true  that  in  all  the  grades  and  crosses 
of  the  Arabi  Sheep  it  is  necessary  to  kill  the  Lambs  shortly 
after  birth,  in  order  to  prevent  the  curls  from  losing  their 
tightness  and  luster,  and  even  their  color.  The  black 
pigment  soon  oxidizes  and  turns  brown,  and  in 
eight  or  ten  months  becomes  grey,  which  is  the  natural 
color  of  all  mature  fur-producing  Arabi  Sheep.  The  grey 
wool  of  the  mature  Arabis,  as  well  as  that  of  all  grades 
produced  from  these  animals  is  very  coarse,  and  admir- 
ably adapted  because  of  its  great  length  for  the  weaving 
of  rugs.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  Persian  and 
Bokharan  rugs  are  made  from  it. 


The  Sheep  Family.  357 

The  name  Persian  as  applied  to  lambs  is  misleading. 
As  we  have  seen  most  of  the  skins  so  designated  still 
come  from  Bokhara  and  the  surrounding  country.  It  is 
the  Shiraz,  and  some  of  the  other  grades,  that  come  from 
the  provinces  in  Persia  from  which  they  derive  their 
names,  that  are  strictly  speaking  Persian  skins.  The  word 
Persian,  therefore,  seems  to  indicate  quality  rather  than 
locality,  and  is  applied  to  certain  grades  produced 
from  different  strains  of  the  Patyura,  and  other  Arabi 
sheep,  whether  they  are  obtained  on  the  Bokhara  desert 
or  in  Texas. 

The  Krimmer  or  Crimean  Lamb  derives  its  name  from 
its  habitat — the  Crimean  Peninsula.  While  the  Astra- 
chan,  Persian,  Ukranier  and  other  Russian  and  Asiatic 
lambs  are  generally  born  black,  this  variety  usually 
comes  into  the  world  with  a  grey  or  slate  colored  fur  that 
shows  considerable  variation  in  the  character  of  the  curl. 
Krimmer  is  always  more  or  less  in  favor  for  children's 
furs,  and  sometimes  is  used  for  trimmings,  caps  and  capes. 

Iceland  Sheep  have  a  long,  beautifully  curled  wool,  and 
the  white  specimens  are  sometimes  sold  for  Tibet  lamb, 
but  they  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  the  dense  under- 
fur.  The  predominating  colors  are  white,  black,  brown 
and  mottled ;  but  bluish  grey,  and  black  or  brown  spotted 
animals  are  sometimes  met  with.  This  breed  is  conspicu- 
ous because  of  the  number  of  its  horns.  It  is  said  that 
the  sheep  are  not  shorn  in  Iceland,  but  that  the  wool  is 
pulled  off  the  animals  as  it  becomes  loose  late  in  the 
spring. 

China  Sheep  are  generally  coarser  than  the  Iceland 
sheep;  some,  however,  have  almost  as  fine  wool,  but  the 
hair  is  always  shorter  and  the  curl  is  smaller. 

Slink  Lamb  is  a  name  given  to  the  skins  taken  from 
the  stillborn  of  the  domesticated  varieties  of  sheep,  or 
those  who  die  or  are  killed  soon  after  birth.  These  skins 
are  used  principally  for  glove  and  shoe  linings. 

Sheep  are  the  stupidest  as  well  as  the  most  harmless 
and  timid  of  all  animals.  They  are  nearly  allied  to  the 
Musk  Ox  by  which  they  are  connected  with  the  Bovidae, 
but  in  the  Barbary  Sheep  of  Africa  (Ovis-tragelaphus) 
and  the  Bharu,  or  Blue  Sheep  of  Tibet  (Ovis-nahura), 
they  approximate  nearer  to  the  goats;  in  the  character  of 


358  Ungulata. 

their  molar  teeth  they  so  strongly  resemble  the  gazelles 
that  some  authorities  think  that  they  may  be  descended 
from  some  extinct  family  of  antelopes. 

The  strongest  instinct  in  both  wild  and  domesticated 
sheep  seems  to  be  an  inclination  to  seek  the  highest 
altitudes;  even  in  a  level  country  the  lambs  will  congre- 
gate and  contest  for  the  possession  of  the  highest  knolls, 
and  the  aged  sheep  seem  as  anxious  to  secure  the  most 
elevated  spot  in  the  pasture  field  where  the  flock  folds 
for  the  night,  as  the  lambkin  that  can  hardly  support  itself 
on  its  unsteady  legs. 

In  summer  sheep  feed  in  flocks  and  graze  very  closely; 
in  the  winter  they  aTe  penned,  and  fed  on  hay,  turnips 
and  other  vegetables.  They  are  extremely  liable  to  a 
very  infectious  foot  and  mouth  disease,  and  for  this 
reason  most  countries  establish  a  rigid  quarantine  against 
the  introduction  of  foreign  sheep.  The  lambs  are  gener- 
ally born  in  January  and  February,  and  are  frisky  and 
frolicsome  creatures. 

The  adult  males  are  called  rams,  the  females  ewes,  and 
the  young  are  known  as  lambs.  Both  males  and  females 
are  furnished  with  horns;  those  of  the  former  being 
large  and  massive  at  the  base,  triangular  in  section,  and 
curling  upwards  and  backwards,  and  turning  outward 
from  the  side  of  the  head.  The  horns  of  the  females 
are  small  and  narrow.  The  largest  sheep  are  smaller 
than  most  oxen,  and  while  their  necks  are  comparatively 
short  they  carry  their  heads  higher  above  the  level  of 
the  back.  A  distinctive  feature  is  a  small  gland  between 
the  hoofs  on  each  foot. 

Domesticated  sheep  are  all  classed  as  one  species  (Ovis- 
aries),  and  are  found  in  vast  numbers  in  every  part  of 
the  world.  Sheep  washing  and  shearing  has  been 
practiced  from  time  immemorial.  While  only  a  few 
breeds  are  fur  producers,  the  raising  of  sheep  for  wool 
is  an  important  industry  in  many  lands,  particularly  in 
England  and  her  colonies.  The  Lincoln  and  Leicester 
sheep  have  the  heaviest  fleeces,  but  the  wool  of  the  various 
Scotch,  Welch  and  Devonshire  breeds  is  particularly  fine, 
and  that  of  the  super  Southdowns  is  claimed  to  be  the 
best   produced   anywhere 


The  Sheep  Family. 


359 


In  Australia  and  New  Zealand  flocks  are  herded  that 
number  as  high  as  3,000  individuals,  but  the  larger  flocks 
are  only  penned  once  or  twice  a  year,  being  allowed  to 
wander  about  the  rest  of  the  time. 

According  to  some  figures  published  by  Poland  in  1892, 
the  total  number  of  domesticated  sheep  in  the  world  in 
1889  was  over  500,000,000,  of  which  43,000,000  were  cred- 
ited to  the  United  States,  35,000,000  to  the  United  King- 
dom, 80,000,000  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  30,000,000 
to  Canada,  22,000,000  to  France  and  16,500,000  to  Spain. 

The  reports  of  the  Census  Bureau  of  the  Department 
of  Commerce  and  Labor,  show  that  in  1900  the  total 
number  of  domesticated  sheep  on  the  farms  in  the  United 
States  was  60,503,713,  and  in  1910,  52,447,061,  a  decrease 
of  14.4  per  cent.  The  reports  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  show,  that  the  total  number  of  sheep  on  the 
farms  in  this  country,  in  1913,  was  51,482,000,  valued  at 
$202,779,000. 

The  United  States  Government  reports  show  that  in 
1910  the  617,268,700  sheep  and  lambs  in  the  world  were 
distributed  as  follows: 


Australia   89,780,000 

Tasmania    1,896,281 

Kussian  Empire  .  . .   82,672,123 

Argentina    67,211,754 

United   States    51,819,068 

Ottoman  Empire   .  .   41,000,000 

Great  Britain 31,164,547 

British  South  Africa  31,102,467 

Uruguay    26,286,296 

New  Zealand 23,996,126 

British  India' 21,824,000 

China    18,900,000 

France    17,357,640 

Spain     15,471,183 

Austro-IIungary   ...    13,991,500 

Italy    11,160,000 

Algeria     9,632,177 

Bulgaria   8,132,000 

Germany    7,703,710 

Eoumania    5,655,444 

Greece    4,570,000 

Chile 4,244,000 

Mexico   4,424,000 

Peru    3,700,000 


Servia     3,160,166 

Portugal    3,150,000 

Peru    3,000,000 

Canada   2,598,470 

German  East  Africa  1,560,000 

Sudan    1,421,721 

Norway    1,378,517 

Sweeden   1,024,500 

Denmark    1.003,000 

Egypt 920,000 

Tunis    585,027 

Columbia   746,000 

Falkland  Island  . . .  689,000 

Netherlands    607,000 

Montenegro    496,856 

Iceland    495,100 

Central  America   .  .  442,950 

Brazil 380,000 

Cyprus    .• 302,000 

Belgium    236,000 

Switzerland    209,997 

Ceylon    96,300 

West  Indies  51,400 

Phillipines    30,400 


360  Ungulata. 

Of  the  sheep  credited  to  Great  Britain  16,273,518 
were  in  England;  7,144,646  in  Scotland;  3,979,516  in  Ire- 
land ;  3,684,781  in  Wales ;  and  82,126  on  the  Isle  of  Man 
and  in  Jersey  and  Guernsey.  Of  the  English  sheep  1,024,- 
934  were  in  Kent;  1,097,923  in  Lincoln;  1,140,913  in 
Northumberland;  and  923,755  in  Devon.  The  figures  show 
that  there  was  one  sheep  for  each  2.5  acres  of  the  17,690,240 
acres  in  the  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  and  1  to  each  1.8 
acres  in  England  and  Wales  alone.  The  United  States 
had  1.36  sheep  for  each  of  its  1,903,461,760  acres.  At  pres- 
ent 57%  of  the  sheep  in  the  United  States  are  in  eleven 
States  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1840  over  66% 
were  in  six  Eastern  and  Central  States:  New  York  hav- 
ing 5,119,000;  Ohio,  2,028,000;  Pennsylvania,  1,768,000; 
Vermont,  1,682,000 ;  Virginia,  1,294,000 ;  Kentucky,  1,008,- 
000.  The  total  number  of  sheep  (excluding  lambs)  on 
farms  and  ranches  in  the  United  States  in  1860,  was 
23,975,000;  in  1870,  28,478,000 ;  in  1880,  42,192,000 ;  in  1890, 
40,876,000;  and  in  1900,  39,853,000. 

In  the  far  west  and  portions  of  the  state  of  Ohio  wool 
raising  is  a  separate  industry,  but  in  the  middle  west  and 
east,  sheep  raising  is  generally  only  an  incident  of  a  mixed 
system  of  husbandry.  In  1910  the  average  number  of  sheep 
and  lambs  to  a  ranch  on  the  609,323  sheep  farms  in  the 
United  States  was  85,  although  in  some  of  the  far  western 
states  the  average  was  over  3,000,  The  census  showed  that 
of  the  total  of  51,809,068  reported  from  the  ranches  and 
farms  that  year,  31,582,097  were  ewes,  7,604,672  were  rams 
and  wethers,  and  12,622,299  were  lambs  born  after  January 
1st,  1910. 

Of  the  91,676,281  in  Australia  and  Tasmania  the  same 
year  eighty-five  per  cent  were  in  flocks  of  1,000  or  over,  and 
fifty  per  cent  in  flocks  of  10,000  and  upward.  In  Queens- 
land and  New  South  Wales  a  large  percentage  of  the  flocks 
contained  from  20,000  to  50,000  individuals,  and  some 
numbered  over  100,000  sheep  each.  The  holdings  were 
from  10,000  to  100,000  acres  each.  50%  of  the  Australian 
sheep  were  in  New  South  Wales;  21.37%  in  Queensland, 
7.07%  in  South  Australia,  5.16%  in  West  Australia,  and 
1.89%  in  Tasmania. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  number  of  sheep  in 
each  state  and  section  of  the  United  States  in  1910,  as  well 


The  Sheep  Family.  361 

as  the  number  of  ranches  or  farms,  and  average  number  of 

sheep  on  each. 

No.  of  Farms  Average      No.  of  Sheep 

and  Ranches  on  Each  and  Lambs 

North  Atlantic  Division 71,467  32  2,273,458 

Maine    11,066  19  206,434 

New  Hampshire    2,226  20  43,772 

Vermont    5,033  24  118,551 

Massachusetts    1,027  32  32,669 

Rhode   Island    243  28  6,789 

Connecticut    740  30  42,398 

New   York    24,329  17  39,547 

New  Jersey   815  35  30,446 

Pennsylvania 25,426  35  882,852 

South   Atlantic   Division 76,188  33  2,507,417 

Delaware    266  29  3,391 

Maryland    6,288  38  110,826 

District  of  Columbia . .  

Virginia     21,496  37  803,552 

West  Virginia 26,814  35  906,093 

North  Carolina   14,694  15  214,176 

South   Carolina    1,721  22  37,433 

Georgia    5,126  37  187,589 

Florida    663  180  113,631 

North  Central  Division 326,231  45  14,595,059 

Ohio     71,523  55  3,907,055 

Indiana    38,191  35  1,336,967 

Illinois     26,240  40  1,059,672 

Michigan    54,865  42  2,306,476 

Wisconsin    30,040  31  929,783 

Minnesota     24,549  26  637,033 

Iowa     44,010  53  637,033 

Missouri    21,789  41  1,144,583 

North  Dakota   3,673  79  289,354 

South  Dakota    5,155  118  610,928 

Nebraska    3,043  96  293,496 

Kansas 3,153  86  272,472 

South  Central  Division 107,441  43  4,632,651 

Kentuckv    45,663  30  1,361,000 

Tennessee    29,953  27  793,983 

Alabama 6,614  22  142,925 

Mississippi    5,687  34  194,280 

Louisiana 3,629  49  178,217 

Texas     6,683  263  1,758,384 

Oklahoma     831  72  59,792 

Indian   Territory    .  .  

Arkansas     8,381  17  144,190 

Western  Division 27,994  993  27,800,485 

Montana     2,267  2,370  5,372,639 

Wyoming    1,641  3,287  5,274,959 

Colorado    1,693  841  1,424,187 

New  Mexico    3,113  1,049  3,264,612 

Arizona     1,025  1,035  1,061,36^ 

Utah    2,416  756  1,826,471 

Nevada    316  3,493  x,103,88J? 

Idaho     2,995  985  2,950,534 

Washington    2,116  223  471,521 

Oregon     6,308  427  2,676,729 

California    3,801  508  2,234,125 


362  Ungulata. 

The  ** Bighorn"  (Ovis-montana)  is  the  only  wild  sheep 
indigenous  to  the  North  American  Continent,  and  is  very 
closely  allied  to  the  Kamschatka  Wild  Sheep  (Ovis- 
nivicola).  Both  of  these  species,  whose  rams  attain 
a  height  of  three  and  one-half  feet  at  the  shoulder  and 
average  about  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  in  weight, 
can  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  Argali  (Ovis- 
ammon)  of  Mongolia,  and  the  Wild  Sheep  of  Tibet  (Ovis- 
hodgsoni),  by  the  character  of  their  skull  and  horns; 
the  skull  of  the  last  two  species  having  a  deeper  pit  for 
the  gland  below  the  eye,  and  very  strongly  marked 
wrinkles  on  the  anterior  surface  of  the  enormous  horns 
which  are  wanting  on  the  horns  of  the  others.  The  range 
of  the  Bighorn  extends  from  Mexico  to  Alaska,  and  from 
the  eastern  points  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific 
Coast.  The  Kamschatka  species  is  found  in  the  Stanovoi 
Mountains  as  well  as  on  the  peninsula  of  Kamschatka, 
where  its  range  is  separated  by  little  more  than  the 
Bering  Strait  from  the  Alaskan  habitat  of  the  American 
species.  The  skins  of  the  Tibet  lambs,  sometimes  called 
Mandarin  lambs,  are  white,  and  the  long  curly  wool  is 
fine  and  silky;  they  take  the  dye  beautifully  in  fancy 
colors  as  well  as  black,  but  are  principally  used  in  their 
natural  state  for  baby  carriage  robes  and  fur  sets  and 
trimmings,  or  are  dyed  black  and  made  into  muffs  and 
boas.  Furs  made  from  the  skins  of  the  lambs  of  the 
domesticated  Iceland  and  China  sheep  are  sometimes  sold 
as  Tibet.  The  Pamir,  which  inhabits  and  takes  its  name 
from  the  elevated  district  in  central  Asia  known  as  ''the 
roof  of  the  world,"  has  longer  curved  horns,  but  does 
not  grow  to  quite  the  size  of  the  Argali.  The  horns  of 
some  of  the  male  Pamir  sheep  measure  from  fifty  to 
sixty  inches  along  the  outer  curve. 

The  Armenian  and  Cyprian  Sheep  (Ovis-gnelini  and 
Ovi&-ophion)  are  two  small  species  distinguished  by  dark 
colored  tails  and  the  absence  of  horns  in  the  ewes.  The 
Armenian  sheep  is  the  larger  of  the  two,  standing  about 
two  feet  nine  inches.  The  horns  of  the  males,  which  have 
a  peculiar  backward  and  inward  curve  until  they  nearly 
meet  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  rarely  exceed  twenty  inches 
in  length.  The  color  of  the  body  of  these  sheep  is  white 
with  the  exception  of  the  upper  parts  which  are  a  russet 


363 

yellow.  The  females  have  a  characteristic  white  saddle 
mark  on  the  back. 

The  Mouflon  (Ovis-musimon)  is  probably  the  ancestor 
of  some  of  the  long  wool  artificial  breeds  with  short  flat 
tails  and  cresentic  horns ;  the  origin  of  some  of  the  tight 
wool  varieties  like  the  Southdowns  could  possibly  be 
traced  back  to  the  fat  tail,  and  it  seems  certain  that  the 
broad  tail  sheep  of  Persia,  the  Arabis  and  Doozbais  of 
Bokhara,  and  the  other  producers  of  close  spiral  curled 
lambs,  like  the  Astrachan,  Persian  and  Ukranier,  are 
strains  of  the  now  extinct  Ovis-platyura,  the  original 
broad  tail. 

The  Mouflon  is  a  species  entirely  confined  to  the  Islands 
of  Corsica  and  Sardinia.  It  is  of  compact  build  and 
stands  about  twenty-eight  inches  high.  The  generaj  color 
is  a  fox  red  shading  to  a  light  grey  on  the  head;  the 
under  part  of  the  body,  sides  and  tail,  cheeks  and  parts 
of  the  lower  legs  are  white.  Mouflons  generally  frequent 
the  highest  peaks  of  the  mountain  ranges  in  their  habitat, 
where  they  can  command  a  full  view  of  the  surrounding 
country.  In  the  pairing  season,  which  occurs  in  December 
and  January,  they  divide  into  small  parties  consisting 
of  one  ram  and  several  ewes;  the  lambs — either  one  or 
two  at  a  birth — are  produced  in  May,  and  within  a  few 
days  after  they  are  born  are  able  to  follow  the  ewes 
everywhere.  The  fact  that  the  wild  Mouflon  occasionally 
desert  their  own  kin  to  live  among  tame  sheep,  and  that 
motherless  domestic  lambs  have  been  known  to  seek  com- 
panionship among  a  flock  of  Mouflon,  is  the  strongest 
evidence  that  the  wild  sheep  and  domesticated  breeds 
are  very  closely  related. 

The  Asiatic  wild  sheep (  Ovis-vignei)  known  in  Punjab 
as  the  Urial  and  in  Ladok  as  the  Sha,  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  species  by  its  smaller  size,  more 
diminutive  horns,  and  the  presence  of  a  large  ruff  of  long 
hair  on  the  throat,  which  is  much  less  developed  in  the  Sha 
than  in  the  Urial.  The  range  of  this  species  extends 
from  northern  Tibet  to  Afghanistan  and  into  eastern 
Persia,  and  is  generally  at  elevations  of  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  thousand  feet.  The  Urial  stands  about  two  feet 
eight  inches  at  the  shoulders,  and  the  Sha  sometimes 
attains  a  height  of  three  feet. 


364 


Index. 


INDEX 


A 

Aard  Wolf   172 

Alaska  Commercial  Co 279 

Alaska  Sable   74 

Alpaca   333 

American  Fur  Company 11 

American  Wild  Cat 140 

Angora 348 

Animal  Kingdoms 85 

Annual  Quantities 61 

Annual  Supply   60 

Antelope-Indian   335 

-Prong-Horn    336 

-Sable    335 

AntilopniaB    (Antelope)    93 

Antlers 340 

Ape 271 

-Barbary    271 

-Black 271 

Argali    362 

Astor,  John  Jacob 10-23-28 

Astoria,  Founding  of 16 

Astoria,  Surrender  of 20 

Astrachan    353 

Aurochs    317 

Axis    337 

Aye  Aye   276 

Azara  's  Dog  74 

B 

Baboon  Family 271 

Baboon-Golden   271 

-Gelada    271 

-Hamadryas   271 

Badger-Common 194 

-European    195 

-Ferret    195 

-Honey   195 

-Sand 195 

-Stinking    195 

Baltic  Seal 74 

Bandicoots    264 

Ban  Kaos   74 

Bassarisk    205 

Bassaris  Mink   205 

Bay  Lynx  140 


Bear- American  Black 119 

-Barren  Ground 119 

-Brown 117 

-Cinnamon   119 

-Grizzly    119 

-Himalayan  120 

-Isabella  (Hairy  Eared)  .117 

-Japanese    120 

-Malay  (Sun)    120 

-Polar   121 

-Roachbaek   119 

-Silver  Tip   119 

-Spectacled   119 

-Syrian   117 

-White   120 

Bear  Cat    74 

Bear  Family 117 

Beaver-American 277 

-European 281 

Beaver  Dam 277 

Beaver  Lodge 277 

Beaver  Eat 296 

Beaver's  Tooth  Pick 282 

Bimana   86-269 

Bison- American    321 

-European 317 

Black  Buck 335 

Black  Marten 75 

Bless  Bock    335 

Bobac   307 

Bovidae   (Ox)    97 

Breitschwanz 75 

Broadtail     357 

Brook  Mink   75 

Brumbies    351 

Buffalo- African  Black 315 

-Cape 315 

-Common 316 

-Indian    316 

-Eed 315 

-Short  Horn 315 

Burun  Duchy   75 

Bush  Cat   75 

C 

Cacomistle 265 

Calabar    75 


Index. 


365 


Camelidae    (Camel)    93 

Camel-Bactaiian    333 

-Dromedary    333 

Canidse   (Dog)    ." 88 

Capriniae    (Goat)    93 

Caracal    137 

Caribou     348 

Carnivora 116 

Casing   51 

Castoreum    282 

Castoridae    (Beaver)    94 

Cat-Asiatic    126 

-Afghan    127 

-African    127 

-Angora 126 

-Australian  Spotted 126 

-Black    126 

-Bokharan   127 

-Bush    148 

-Caffer    127 

-Chaus    127 

-Domestic 126 

-Egyptian    124 

-Eyra     77 

-European  Wild 123 

-Geoffroy    129 

-Golden    75 

-House  125 

-Jungle 125 

-Leopard    128 

-Manx    126 

-Margay    128 

-Molinas     76 

-Mombas   126 

-Pampas  130 

-Panther    130 

-Paraguay   126 

-Persian 126 

-Ocelot-like    129 

-Tiger  128 

Cat  Common 75 

Cat  Family 123 

Cat  Lynx    75 

Cebidse   (S.  A.  Monkey) 93 

Cerophithecidse      (Old     World 

Monkey)     93 

Cetacea    86 

Champagne   Fox    78 

ChinchilliaB     (Chinchilla) 93 

Chiromyidae    (Aye- Aye)    89 

Civet- African   147 

-Asiatic   147 

-Chinese    148 

Civet  Cat 76 

Civet  Family 146 

Chamois   335 

Chaus   137 

Chickeree     302 

China  Trade 12 

Chinchilla- Arica    284 

-Bastard 284 

-Bolivian 284 


Chinchilla-Chilian     284 

-Peru 284 

Chinese  Lynx 76 

Chinese  Mouflon    76 

Chinese  Stone  Marten 76 

Chinchilla  Squirrel    83 

Chinchillone    284 

Chinese  Traders 46 

Chioptera    86 

Chipmunk    304 

-American    304 

-Asiatic    304 

-California     304 

Classes    85 

-Anthropada     85 

-Coelenterata    85 

-Echinadermata    85 

-Ichthyopsida    86 

-Mammalia    86 

-Molluscoida    86 

-Mollusks     85 

-Protoza     85 

-Sauropsida    86 

-Vermes    85 

Chimpanzee     271 

Chitah 134 

CThittenden  Hiram  Marten. ...  29 
Classes  of  the  Invertebrata . .  85 
Classes  of  the  Vertebrata ....   86 

•Classification-Kingdoms    85 

-Classes     85 

-Families  87-98 

-Orders 86 

-Species 99-110 

Closed  Seasons 73 

Clouded  Leopard    133 

Coati    75 

Colobus    271 

Color    57 

Conies-Belgian   292 

-French   292 

-German   292 

Coney-Leopard    76 

Coney-Mole    76 

Cook-Captain    11 

Couguar    142 

Coyote    167 

Coypur  Rat 293 

Crimmer    360 

Cumarans    137 

D 

Dalgelty   77 

Danada    77 

Dasyure 265 

Dasyure  Family 265 

Dasyuridae   (Dasyurae)    91 

Deer- Axis    337 

-Black   Tailed    338 

-East  India 337 

-Fallow    337 


366 


Index. 


Deer  Mule   338 

-Red 338 

-Virginia     338 

-White  Tail    338 

Deer  Family 337 

Desman    249 

DidelphyidsB    (Opossum)    92 

Distillery  at  Fort  William ...   28 

Dog-Azara  's    154 

-Chinese    152 

-Collie    156 

-Dalmation     152 

-Dingo    152 

-Domestic    156 

-Eskimo    152 

-Newfoundland   153 

-Pariah    153 

-Raccoon   153 

-Siberian    153 

-Wild    155 

Dog- faced  Monkey   77 

Dog  Family   151 

Dormouse-Garden    297 

-Painted   297 

-Squirrel  Tail 297 

-Tree 297 

Dressing    47 

Drill   275 

Durability   59 

Dyeing 49 

E 

Echidna    267 

Eehidnidae    (Echidna)    92 

Edentata    86 

Elk 343 

Equidae   (Horse)    97 

Ermine     184 

F 

Factory  System    9 

Fairs 45 

Family- 

-Aard  Wolf  (Protelidae) ...  89 
-Antelope    (Antelopinse)    . .   93 

-Ape  (Simiidae) 92 

-Aye  Aye  (Chiromyidse) ...  89 
-Baboon  (Ceropithecidae) . .  93 
-Bandicoot    (Peramelidae) . .  91 

-Bear   (Ursida)    87 

-Beaver   (Castoridse) 94 

-Calf    (Bovidas) 332 

-Camel   (Camelidae) 93 

-Cat    (FelidaB)    87 

-Chinchilla    (Chinchillidas)..   93 

-Civet   (Viverridae) 88 

-Dasyure    (Dasyuridae) 91 

-Deer   (CervidaB) 93 

-Deseman   (Myogalidae) ....   91 

-Dog  (Canidae)    88 

-Dormouse  (Myoxidae)    ....   94 

-Echidna    (Eehidnidae) 92 

-(Joat   (Capriniae)    93 


Family- 

-Hare  (Leporidae)   94 

-Horse  (Equinidae)    97 

-Hyaena    (Hyaenidae) 89 

-Kangaroo   (Macropodidae) .   92 

-Lemur  (Lemuridae)    93 

-Marmoset   (Halpalidae)..  . .   93 

-Mole  (Talpidae)    91 

-Monkey     (Ceropithecidae)..   93 

-Monkey    (Cebidae)    93 

-Monkey-S  o  u  t  h    American 

(Cebidae)     93 

-Musk  Ox  (Ovibrominae) ...   97 
-Opossum    (Didelphyidae)..  .   92 

-Ox  (Bovidae)  97 

-Phalanger    (Phalangeridae)  91 
-Platybus     (Ornithorhynchi- 

dse)   92 

-Raccoon  (Procyonidae) ....   89 

-Rat    (Muridae) : . . .   95 

-Rat    (Geomyidae) 95 

-Rat    (Octodontidae) 95 

-Sea  Bears-Eared  Fur  Seal 

(Tricophocinae    Otariidae)   90 
-Sea  Lions-Eared  5air  Seal 

(Ulophocinae   Otariidae) . .   91 
-Sea  Dogs-Hair  Seals  (Pho- 

cidae)     91 

-Sheep  (Ovinae)   97 

-Squirrel   (Scuridae)    94 

-Tapir    (Tapiridae) 98 

-Tasier  (Tarsiidae)    93 

-Weasel  (Mustelidae) 89 

-Wombat     (Phascolomyidae)   92 

Felidae   123 

Felidae  (Cat)    87 

Fenec    77 

Ferret    186 

Fi  Fu  78 

Fisher    180 

Fissipeds    78 

Fitch    ,191 

Florida  Mink 77 

Foal   Leopard    77 

Forsythe,  Richardson  &  Co . .  .      8 

Fossa-Fossane    149 

Foxes- Afghan 164 

-African 164 

-Arctic 161 

-Black    157 

-Blue    161 

-Brazil 164 

-Cape    78 

-Cossac  164 

-Desert 164 

-Grey    158 

-Hue 164 

-Kamschatka 159 

-Kit    157 

-Patagonia 164 

-Prairie    164 

-Red 158 


Index. 


367 


Foxes-Silver   157 

-Steppe 164 

-White   162 

Fox  Famil}-   157 

Fox-nosed   Monkey    78 

Fox  Eaccoon    78 

Fox  Raising    30 

Fox  Ranches 35 

Fox-Trade  Names   78 

French  Leopard     78 

French  Lynx    78 

French  Seal     78 

French  Wolf    78 

Fuchskiisu    (Australian 

Opossum)     81 

Fur  Farming 29 

Fur  Markets  . .  . '. 45 

Furriers 41 

Fur  Sales  .  . 45 

Fur  Seals   208 

Fur  Traders 1 

Fur  Traders  Lexicon 74 

G 

Gaur 318 

Gayal    318 

Gazell    335 

Genet-Blotched   149 

-Common     349 

Genera- Alphabetical  List 99 

Geomyidae    (Rat)    95 

Gibbon 271 

Glutton    201 

Gnu 335 

Goat- Angora  348 

-Cashmere   349 

-China    349 

-Domestic    349 

-Himalaya  349 

-Ibex    347 

-Italian    347 

-Mongolian     349 

-Rocky    Mountain 349 

-Russian     349 

-Siberian     349 

-Tibet 349 

-Wild    349 

Goat  Family 347 

Goat  Raising     349 

Golden  Squirrel   79 

Gopher     306 

Gorilla 271 

Grading   53 

Gray,   Captain    12 

Grison    184 

Guanaco 334 

Guereza   272 

H 

Hair  Seals   208 

Halpalidae    (Marmoset)    93 

Hamster    295 

Hares- American    291 


Hares-Common    290 

-White   290 

Hare  Family 289 

Hollow  Horned  Ruminants.  .  .312 

HominidaB    (Mau)    93 

Horns 340 

Horse  Family 350 

Horse-Kirghiz     351 

Hudson 's  Bay  Co 20 

Hudson  Seal 79 

Huli     79 

Huran    79 

Hyaena-Brown 171 

-Spotted 171 

-Striped 171 

Hyaenidae    (Hyaena)    89 

I 

Ibex .347 

Iceland  Fox   78 

Ichneuman    150 

Icthyopsida   86 

Imports  and  Exports 71 

Improving  Skins 49 

Increasing  Quantities  . 64 

Insectivora    245 

Invertebrates    85 

Irbit  Fair   46 

Istatsi    79 

J 

Jackal    170 

J  aguar  143 

Jaguarondi   ,' 130 

Jama  Jum    80 

Japanese  Fox 79 

Jungle  Cat  137 

K 

Kangaroo- Antelope 259 

-Blue 259 

-Bridled   259 

-Bush    259 

-Common 255 

-Giant  or   Grey 258 

-Musk    257 

-Red    257 

Kangaroo  Family 254 

Kangaroo  Hares   257 

Kangaroo  Rats   257 

Kangaroo  Squirrels 259 

Kingdom- Animal   85 

Kingdoms    85 

-Invertebrata    85 

-Vertebrata    85 

Kinkajou     206 

Kittrass    80 

Kitzenu     79 

Kju    80 

Koala 263 

Kolinsky   182 

Kratka  Sales   46 

Kumu 80 

Kusu    (Phalanger)    82 


368 


Index. 


li 

La  Long  5U 

Lamson  &  Co.   (Report  1813)   66 

Lamb-Astrachan    353 

-Bokhara    354 

-Broadtail    356 

-Cape     356 

-China    357 

-Crimmer    360 

-Danada     354 

-Iceland    357 

-Persian   357 

-Shiraz   357 

-Slink   357 

-Tibet     362 

-Ukrainer    353 

Lao  Fu SO 

Largotis 284 

Leipzig  Sales 46 

Lemming- European   295 

-False  296 

Lemuridae   (Lemur)    93 

Lemurs-Black    274 

-Dwarf   275 

-Mouse    275 

-Red  Front   275 

-Ring  Tail 275 

-Ruffled    274 

-Woolly  275 

Leon    ' 80 

Leporidae    (Hare)    94 

Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition..    13 

Lexicon    74 

Leopards- African     132 

-Black    132 

-Ceylon     130 

-Chalibelata    133 

-Chinese   133 

-Clouded 133 

-Common    133 

-Corean    133 

-Hunting   134 

-East  Indian    .  .^ 130 

-Mongolian    132 

-Persian    132 

-Snow    131 

-Turkistan 133 

Linsang  80 

Lion- Asiatic    135 

-African 136 

-Barbary   136 

-Cape   136 

-Gugerat    136 

-Massai    136 

-Persian  136 

-Senegal    136 

-Soudan 136 

-''Man  Eaters"    136 

Liquor   Question    27 

Lisa,  Manuel    26 

Llama    333 

London  Sales 46 


Lynx-American    139 

-Bay    140 

-Canadian  141 

-Caracal    137 

-Chaus    137 

-Common    137 

-European    137 

-Halifax    141 

-Pardnie 137 

-Persian    137 

-Plateau  141 

-Red 137 

-Swamp 137 

Lynx  Cat 80 

M 

Machining    .  . . . ' 49 

Macropodidae    (Kangaroo) 92 

McKenzie  's  Party 18 

McKenzie,  Sir  Alexander....    13 

Mackinaw  Company 8 

Malacca  Weasel   80 

Mami    80 

Mammalia   Ill 

Mandrill    271 

Mangabey    80 

Mao    80 

Markhor 349 

Marmoset    273 

Marmot-American   307 

-Alpine 307 

-Himalayan   307 

-Hoary    307 

-Pyrenees  307 

-Rocky  Mountain  ....  307 

-Russian 308 

Marmot   Mink    80 

Marsupialia    250 

Marsupials    250 

Martens-Baum    178 

-Beech    179 

-Indian 179 

-Labrador    177 

-Pine    177 

-Stone    178 

Mink- American    181 

-Chinese 181 

-European    181 

-Japan    181 

-Russian    182 

Mink  Enclosures 40 

Mink  Raising 39 

Missouri  Fur  Co 26 

Mole-European   245 

-Common 247 

-Garden    247 

-Star  247 

Moline    81 

Monkeys- Abyssinian   272 

-Black    272 

-Blue 272 

-Capauchin   293 


Index. 


369 


Monkeys-Common   273 

-Diana    272 

-Howling    274 

-Owl-faced    274 

-Saki    274 

-Spider    273 

-Squirrel     274 

-Titi    274 

-Ukari     274 

-Vervet    274 

-Wanderoo     274 

-Woolly   273 

Monkey  Family 271 

Monkey  Tribe   269 

Monotremata    266 

Moose    343 

Mouflou    363 

Mountain   Bear    80 

Mountain   Cat    81 

Mountain  Entellus   273 

Mountain   Lion    81 

Mungoose    150 

Muridae    295 

Muridae   (Eat)    95 

Musk  Ox 330 

Musk  Eat   298 

Musk  Shrew 249 

Mustelidae   (Weasel)    89 

Myogalidae    (Desman) 91 

Myoxidae    (Dormouse)    94 

N 

Native  Bear 263 

Native  Cat  81 

Near  Seal   81 

Nijni  Novgorod  Fair 45 

Neko    81 

North    American    Commercial 

Co 229 

North  W^est  Company 7 

Nutria    293 

0 

Ocelot  ...128 

Octodontidae   (Nutria)    95 

Opossum-Adelaide   260 

-Australian    260 

-Melbourne     260 

-Eing-tail   261 

-Virginia    261 

Orang-Utang    82 

Otariidae    221 

Otter    196 

-African     196 

-American 196 

-Arctic    196 

-Brazilian     196 

-European     196 

-Japanese    198 

Orders  of  the  Mammalia 86 

-Carnivora    86 

-Cetacea   86 


Orders-Chioptera   86 

-Edentata 86 

-Insectivora    86 

-Marsupialia    86 

-Monotramata     86 

-Primates     86 

-Eodentia   ,* 86 

-Ungulata 86 

Orinthorhynchidaa  (Platybus)  266 

Otariidae    (Eared   Seals) 90 

Otter-Sea    198 

Ouistitis    273 

Ounce 131 

Overland   Expedition    17 

Overland  Eoute 12 

Ovibromae    (Musk   Ox) 97 

Ox-Domestic 331 

-Galloway   332 

-Wild     332 

P 

Pacific  Fur  Company 14 

Paddy  Melon   82 

Pahmi    174 

Pahmir     s62 

Palm  Cat    149 

Pampas  Fox    78 

Panda    242 

Pantha     132 

Panther    132 

Paquina   174 

Paradoxure   149 

Pedemelon 259 

Peramelidae    (Bandicoot) 91 

Perameles    265 

Persian  Lamb    357 

Perwitsky    191 

Pesang    348 

Phalangeridae   (Phalanger) ...   91 

Phalangers    259 

Phalanger-Cooks 261 

-Great  Flying 261 

-Eingtail   261 

-Vulpine 260 

Phascolomyidae    (W^ombat)  ...   92 

Phocidae    221 

Phocidae    (True   Seal) 91 

Pinnipeds    207 

Platybus    266 

Pointed  Fox    78 

Pole  Cats 191 

-Cape   192 

-Siberian 192 

-South  American   .  .  .  192 

Pony-Kirghez    351 

Potto   206 

Pouched  Mammals    250 

Prairie  Dog 308 

Prices 67 

Primates    269 

ProcyonidaB     (Eaccoon) 89 


370 


Index. 


Prong-Horn    336 

Protelidae    (Aard   Wolf) 89 

Puma  143 

Q 

Quadrumana   269 

Quagga    352 

Quality    58 

Quantities 61 

Quantities-Increasing   64 

R 

Rabbit    291 

Raccoon    203 

-Crab  Eating 204 

Raccoon  Dog    153 

Raccoon  Family 203 

Rasse  150 

Rat-Coypu    293 

Raton     203 

Reindeer    345 

Restrictions 68 

Ring  Tail   82 

River  Mink   82 

Rocky  Mountain  Goat 329 

Rodentia    206 

Rodents .287 

Ruminants 312 

Russian  Fur  Co 12 

Russian  Leopard 82 

Russian   Lynx    82 

Russian  Wolf   82 

S 

Sable-Hudson's  Bay 176 

-Russian    175 

-Tartar    182 

Sable  Fox   78 

Sable  Squirrel 83 

Sales  45 

San  Yang 83 

Sapajous    273 

Sauropsida    86 

Sciuridae    (Squirrel)    94 

Sea  Bears   (Fur  Seals) 227 

Sea  Dogs   (True  Seals) 209 

Sea  Fox   78 

Sea  Lions  (Eared  Hail  Seals)  223 

-Australian   223 

-Calif  ornian    224 

-Hooker 's    225 

-Northern    223 

-Patagonia    223 

Seal-Baltic    8:^ 

Seal.Catch  in  1886 208 

-Catch  in  1912 233 

-Census    in    1913 243 

-Conservation    .  .i 231 

-Cubs    217 

-Dying    239 

-Extermination    227 

-Fisheries-Hair  Seal 217 


Seal-French    83 

-Fur     227 

-Harems     235 

-Hauling  Grounds   237 

-Herds    228-232 

-Hair 21U 

-Hudson    83 

-Leases    229 

-Migration    231 

-Near    81 

-Protection    Treaty 235 

-Restrictions     230 

-Rookeries    234 

-Shipments  1912   243 

-Sorting    238 

-Treaty    232 

Seals   (Fur) 227 

-Alaska    228 

-Cape    229 

-Cape  Horn   228 

-Copper  Island  228 

-Japanese     241 

-Lobos  Island 240 

-North  West  Coast 240 

-Robben  Island    241 

-Shetland    227 

-South  Seal    228 

Seals    (Hair)    209 

-Baikal     212 

-Baltic     216 

-Bearded    216 

-Bedlamite    214 

-Caspian     212 

-Common 213 

-Crested    215 

-Greenland    214 

-Grey    211 

-Harp    ....214 

-Hooded     215 

-Monk     216 

-Norway    211 

-Ringed    213 

-Saddle  Back   214 

-Spots     214 

-True     289 

-Weddeirs    216 

-West  Indian 211 

-White  Coat    214 

Seals    (Elephant) 211 

Seals    (Leopard)    211 

Seals  (Wool)    217 

Sea  Otter 198 

Seedracke    83 

Serval    128 

Sha 363 

Sheep- American 362 

-Arabic 253 

-Barbary     357 

-Big  Horn 362 

-Blue    357 

-Bokhara    354 

-China    357 


Index. 


371 


Sheep-Crimmer    357 

-Cyprian    362 

-Danada     354 

-Domestic    358 

-Doozbai    354 

-Iceland    357 

-Karakule    353 

-Koodiac    354 

-Long  Wool    . 356 

-Moufion    363 

-Tight  Wool   356 

-Wild   362 

Sheep  Family 353 

Sheep  Raising   358 

Sheep  Statistics 359 

Siberian   Raccoon    83 

Simmiidae    (Ape)    92 

Sirenia    86 

Size    57 

Skinners  Co ' 1 

Skinning   50 

Skunk    187 

-Little  Stripe 188 

-Nicaraugua     190 

-South  American 189 

Skunk  Farming 36 

Skunk  Opossum    83 

Skunk  Raccoon    83 

Skunk  Raising 36 

Slink    Lamb    357 

Species    (Alphabetical    List) .   99 

Spermophile    305 

Spotted  Cat   265 

Springbok    335 

Squirrel  Family 301 

-American  Grey 302 

-American  Red 301 

-European 302 

-Flying    306 

-Ground    305 

-Rock    304 

-Tree    301 

Snow  Leopard   131 

Stoat    181 

Strathcona-Lord 24 

St.  Louis  Sales 45 

South   American   Beaver 83 

South  West  Company 11 

SupplyrAnnual 60 

Suslik 305 

Sze  Hue  84 

T 

Talpidae    (Mole)    91 

Tamarins    273 

Tapir    352 

Tapiridse   (Tapir)    98 

Tariff     69 

Tarpans     351 

Tarsier    276 


Tarsiidae    (Tarsiar)    93 

Tartar  Sable    82 

Tasmanian  Devil 265 

Tasmanian  Wolf 84 

Taupe  Fox  jg 

Taxidermy    52 

Tayra   or   Tara 183 

Teh  Mao   84 

Teladu    84 

Ten    '.;:   84 

Tibet    362 

Tiger-Bengal    145 

-Chinese   144 

-Corean 144 

-Mongolian   145 

-White    145 

Tha    84 

Tonquin- Voyage  of 15 

-Loss  of 16 

Tracker     84 

Treaty  of  Paris 6 

Tricophocinae    221 

Turc   Fox    164 

u 

Ulophocinae    221 

Ungulata     309 

Urial    363 

Ursidae    (Bear)    87 

V 

Vertebrata 86 

Vervet    273 

Vicuna   334 

Viscaeha   285 

Vole   296 

Viverridse  (Civet)    88 

Vuli    79 

w 

Wallabies-Bennets     259 

-Black 258 

-Bush-Tailed    258 

-Rock 258 

-Swamp 258 

Wild  Cat- American 141 

-European    123 

Walleroo    257 

Walrus     207 

Wanderoo    273 

Wapiti    341 

Weasel  Family    173 

Weasel  183 

-South  African    193 

Weasel  Groups 173 

Weight    59 

West  India  Co .      2 

Who   Long    84 

Wildebeest    335 


372 


Index. 


Wolf-Black  166       Woodchuek 


,308 


-Common    165 

-China     167 

-Earth   166 

-Grey    166 

-Indian   172 

-Japan 167 

-Prairie    167 

-Russian   166 

-South  American    167 

-Siberian    166 

-Tibetan    167 

-Timber    166 

-Wombat     265 


Wolverine     201 

Wool  Seal  84 

Wuychuchol    84,249 


Yak    319 

Ya  Mao   84 

Yetta  332 


Zebra    352 

Zorilla    198 


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